NGT takes a stand on Deepor Beel

During the hearing of a petition filed by Right to Information activist Rohit Choudhury on Deepor Beel, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) has remarked that the earth is not for humans alone and that all creatures, including wildlife, have a right over it. The tribunal observed that the railways had not reduced the speed of trains passing through the area and had also not synchronised the timing of the trains at the level crossings. Further, the NGT took to notice the shifting of the municipal solid waste plant at the Beel which is causing a huge trash dump near it. The Assam government has been ordered to identify an alternative place for the plant, else it would be directed for a shut down in addition to the imposition of exemplary penalty. 

SC stays order directing tribal eviction

The Supreme Court has stayed its February 13 order that directed eviction of lakhs of scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers whose claims for forest land rights have been rejected under the Forest Rights Act (FRA) of 2006. The apex court has taken into consideration the need to further delve into the matter and ascertain whether the gram sabhas and state level authorities under the FRA followed due process before the claims of the tribals were finally rejected. The court has given the states four months time to file affidavit to show that the process of verification of claims and rejections was fair.

SC reprimands Haryana for allowing construction in Aravallis

The Supreme Court has come down heavily on the Haryana government for passing the Punjab Land Preservation (Haryana Amendment) Bill, 2019, despite being told by the court not to do so. The passing of the amendment act has opened up thousands of acres of land in Aravalli hills to real estate and other non-forest activity that were protected under it for over a century. The court has now ordered the state not to take any further action on the law allowing construction in Aravalli area. 

Bombay high court holds release of water for 2015 Kumbh Mela illegal

Setting aside Maharashtra chief secretary's January 2016 order, the Bombay high court has held that the water released for holy baths during Kumbh Mela 2015 from Godavari river was illegal. The court has also directed the state to amend its resolutions regarding the Jalyukta Shivar Abhiyan (JSA) and River Rejuvenation Programme using a scientific approach. The court has asked the state to consider recommendations of the expert committee which was formed to look into the matter and take a decision on its implementation.

Haryana approves Rs 3324 crore for irrigation, water resources

In its budget, the Haryana government has allocated Rs 3324 crore for irrigation and water resources in 2019-20. The allocation, which is a 6.2 percent increase over revised estimates of 2018-19, has taken a number of policy initiatives to realise the vision of Har Khet Ko Pani. The state government has taken a slew of measures to improve the water resources in the state. It has also allocated Rs 100 crore to construct the Sutlej-Yamuna link canal in order to get the state's share of water of Ravi-Beas river. 

This is a roundup of important policy matters from February 28 - March 5, 2019. Also, read news this week.

In India, women often travel long distances to fetch water. This in turn affects school attendance for young girls, and has a domino effect on other development indicators. Women and girls are an important stakeholder to be considered in the design of interventions and programmes to ensure access to safe water for all.

On International Women's Day today, we take a look at the critical connects between gender and water.

Pipara women realise pipe dream

Pipara village in the parched Bundelkhand region stands out for its uninterrupted water supply. The village has its women to thank for it.

A large number of villages in Bundelkhand, a hilly area divided between the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh experience frequent droughts and an acute water crisis every year. Women in the village have to spend as long as four to five hours each day to secure drinking water. However, Pipara village from Niwadi block in Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh stands out as a unique case where its residents have changed the water situation in their village by managing their water resources well. And they have the women in their village to thank for it!

It all started with Sheena Vishwakarma, a woman in her 50s from Pipara, who took the initiative to change the water and sanitation situation in her village with help from some Self Help Group (SHG) members. Sheena is an active member of Ram Raja Tejasvini Swayam Sahayata Samuha, an SHG working in Pipara. In 2005, she got an opportunity to associate with a project by an NGO named Development Alternatives (DA) during the SHG training. Sheena, along with other women who were concerned about the water situation in their village requested the DA staff to help them build the necessary infrastructure for water and sanitation.

Persuading men in the village was not an easy task - they were not pleased with female leadership and increased participation of women in community activities. Women persisted and convinced people in the village to contribute to the project cost by providing free labour services. The villagers also requested DA to support them financially by providing building materials and essential equipment. The overall cost of providing pipe-water supply to Pipara villagers was Rs 3,35,403. The community and other donors contributed 32% of the cost and DA contributed the rest.The government also chipped in and helped the community in identifying the aquifer in the Pipara primary school premises and also dug a borewell for the community.

The effort demonstrated that it is indeed possible to overcome hurdles, when women can get together and work for the well being of a community.

Read the original article in full here

When women came together for water

This video tells the story of the women of Podapathar village in Himgir panchayat in Odisha who, through their collective efforts, managed to improve the drinking water situation in their village.

The women of Podapathar village in Sundargarh district of Odisha are an inspiration, thanks to their unwavering determination to improve the drinking water situation in their village.

Earlier, the women had to fetch water for domestic use at 4 am. The nearest drinking water source was 1 km away. "In 2002, the panchayat installed two hand pumps at Podapathar but the water from the hand pump was not fit for drinking," says Dutiya Kisan, a woman in her 50s.

In the last 15 years, the government installed three hand pumps in the village but the water, with a foul smell, was not fit for drinking. The villagers were desperate to improve the situation but didn't know how to go about it. In 2016, help came in the form of Atmashakti Trust, an NGO working on community development issues in Odisha and Uttar Pradesh. Atmashakti helped the women of Podapathar to constitute the Mahila Sangram Samiti, a people’s organisation, to solve their community problems.

Since drinking water was the primary problem in the village, the women got together under the banner of Mahila Sangram Samiti and forced the government to implement the drinking water scheme properly. 

Check out the full story here

What do rural women say about sanitation?

Women, who need safe sanitation the most, are often left out of crucial sanitation-related decisions at households.

While women are known to suffer more than men when they have poor or little access to sanitation, little is known about the extent of participation of women in sanitation related decisions at the household level in India.

A study from rural Odisha finds that men of the household have an upper hand in all decisions on everything from health care, access to water supply and daily household purchases to visiting family and friends, house repairs and buying livestock. Women only got to decide daily meals, where men weren't involved at all.

In sanitation-related matters such as latrine building too, it is the men who take crucial decisions like site identification, raw materials needed for construction, arranging masons for latrine building and investment. Latrine installation is perceived as expensive, so men who control the household budget, are many a time not keen to build it or prefer to keep it unfinished or nonfunctional while some wait for government subsidies to build them.

Women face a number of barriers in voicing their needs and power hierarchies at the household level together with their economic status, influence their level of agency in participating in such activities that directly affect them. Often, sanitation interventions directed at rural households overlook such social and political dynamics as well as deep seated gender inequalities at the household level

It is important that interventions aimed at sanitation promotion and behaviour change take into consideration dynamics within families, and unequal power relations between men and women.

Read the full story here

Those invisible farm hands

Farm women in India - often overworked and with poor health - have no claim on lands or any sense of agency. Their voices need to be heard at the policy level, and their needs considered too.

Agriculture is undergoing a radical change in India with more and more rural men migrating to bigger cities for work, leaving women, children and elderly behind to take care of the land and agriculture. This puts an extra burden on women who have their hands already full with household chores.

With no ownership rights on the land that they toil on, many of these women work as  agricultural labourers for as long as 14-18 hours on an average daily with agricultural activities almost taking equal time and energy as household activities. However, in spite of the amount of work they do, women are often paid less than men and their participation in household and agricultural decision-making continues to be poor.

Most of the activities done by women are labour intensive and require constant bending or squatting leaving them with severe pain in their legs, neck, hands and back. Over exertion, inadequate nutrition, lack of rest, multiple pregnancies along with anaemia and calcium deficiencies can all lead to aches and pains and fatigue among women. Long hours of squatting also lead to chronic backache or disc prolapse.

Farm women's work continues to be officially unrecognised and factors like poor literacy, lack of awareness, poor decision-making capacity, limited access to land prevent women from adopting new technologies and participating in agricultural markets. Although policies and legal frameworks exist, these have failed to challenge existing gender norms and women’s economic-dependence issues.

Gender-sensitive agricultural policies and laws supporting the livelihood security of women need to be urgently devised to help the farm women.

Read the full story here

Once again, Indore tops in Swachh Survekshan

Indore, Ambikapur and Mysuru have topped the fourth edition of Swachh Survekshan under the Swachh Bharat Mission. In the Swachh Survekshan 2019, 4,237 urban local bodies participated with Indore winning accolade for the cleanest city; Surat for best solid waste management practices and Jabalpur for best innovation and best practices. In the new edition, the total possible marks were set at 5000 and in four categories—citizen feedback, progress level data, direct observation and a new category on certifications such as star rating of garbage free city, open defecation free—were kept with a weightage of 25 percent each. 

Rejuvenation of Nambul river launched in Manipur

Under the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP), the Manipur government has launched the state’s first-ever rejuvenation and conservation of Nambul river in Imphal. The river has been identified as one of the most polluted rivers in the state by the Central Pollution Control Board (CBCB) and is also a major source of pollution of Loktak lake, the largest freshwater lake in Northeast. The three- year project is aimed at improving Nambul river's water quality by intercepting and treating all the urban wastewater outfalls from the polluted stretch of the river by using the moving bed bioreactor technology. 

Dams in Maharashtra are left with only 32 percent water stock

According to a report of the state water resources department, the dams in Maharashtra are left with only 32 percent water stock of their total storage capacity which is almost 14 percent less compared to last year. With just seven percent water stock, Aurangabad division is the worst hit. Officials have blamed erratic showers in the first few months of the monsoon season followed by long dry spells for the water crisis in the state. However, in order to meet the demand for drinking water in rural and semi-rural areas, the state government has so far deployed 2,636 tankers.

As 176 taluks reel under drought, Karnataka pushes for cloud seeding

With a drought situation looming large in the state, the Rural Development and Panchayat Raj Department in Karnataka have planned to enhance rainfall during the monsoon season of 2019 and 2020 with cloud seeding operations. The project, which is expected to cost Rs 50 crore each year, will be a replica of Varshadhare project taken up in the state in 2017. The department has initiated the tender process so that the cloud seeding planes could take to the skies by June 20 as it takes about two and a half months for the work order, after which another 45 days are required for various approvals. 

Surface ozone destroys 21 percent wheat, six percent rice crop every year, reveals IIT-M study

According to a multi-institute study led by the Indian Institute of Technology-Madras (IIT-M), surface ozone is destroying around 22 million tonnes of India’s wheat yield and 6.5 million tonnes of rice crop every year. Power plants, vehicles, industries, and biomass burning are the source of surface ozone which enters the plant leaves and affects photosynthesis and thereby crop yields. The findings of the study are important in view of the projected rise in manmade pollution with significant impact on the Indo-Gangetic Plain which is an important agricultural region. Besides this, a decrease in crop yield will have a serious impact on the country's food security and economic growth.

This is a roundup of important news published between March 6 - 12, 2019. Also, read policy matters this week.

Centre amends hazardous and other wastes rules 2016 to ban import of solid plastic waste

In order to include the prohibition on the import of solid plastic waste even in special economic zones (SEZ) and by export-oriented units (EOU), the environment ministry has amended the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016. The aim of the amendment is to strengthen the implementation of environmentally sound management of hazardous waste in the country. Henceforth, no authorisation is required for the industries under the Water and Air Act, provided the hazardous and other wastes generated by such industries are handed over to the authorised actual users or waste collectors. 

Panel rejects highway project in Odisha threatening migratory birds and turtles

The environment ministry's expert appraisal committee has rejected the proposed construction of a national highway project in Odisha between Gopalpur port and Ratnapur. The committee observed that the proposed road starts near Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary which is a nesting site for the Olive Ridley sea turtles and further divides Balukhand Konark Wildlife Sanctuary and Chilika (Nalaban) Wildlife Sanctuary which are winter homes to millions of migratory birds. The panel also noted that road pillars will have serious consequences on the flow regime of 13 rivers and floodplains in the region. 

Verify 19.5 lakh forest land claims in 15 days: Centre to states

The ministry of tribal affairs has ordered the state governments to validate the 19.5 lakh rejected forest rights claims on the ground within a fortnight. The states have been directed to entrust the responsibility of sanitising the data at the village level to district collectors and submit the data to the ministry as per the given format. The directive has come following the Supreme Court's interim order to stay eviction of tribals and other traditional forest dwellers (OTFDs) whose claims had been rejected under the Scheduled Tribe and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 2006. 

NGT seeks demarcation reports of Yamuna floodplains in Agra

The National Green Tribunal has ordered the Director of Namami Gange and the Director General of National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee to inspect the Yamuna floodplain in Agra and submit a report on its demarcation within four weeks. The tribunal has come up with the order following a petition filed alleging that many buildings have been built right on the floodplain and even in the river itself. The tribunal had earlier came down heavily on Agra Development Authority (ADA) for allowing construction on the floodplain of the river and had slammed the Uttar Pradesh government and public authorities in Agra for improper demarcation of Yamuna floodplain. 

SC refuses to lift stay on use of secondary treated wastewater

The Supreme Court has refused to lift the stay on the use of secondary treated wastewater for recharge of groundwater in two districts of Karnataka. Earlier, the apex court has barred the use of secondary treated water from municipal waste and factory discharge after reports of foaming and pollution appeared in Bangalore's Bellandur lake and other lakes. Along with this, the court has allowed the appeals filed by the Karnataka government and has set aside the National Green Tribunal's order enlarging the buffer zone limits around lakes and water bodies in Bengaluru. 

This is a roundup of important policy matters from March 6 - 12, 2019. Also, read news this week.

The migratory bird season is in full swing and avid bird watchers have flocked to Surajpur wetland to sight the charismatic Common Teal, Red-crested Pochard, Ferruginous Pochard, Bar-headed Goose, Greylag Goose, Northern Shoveler and Gadwall. It is noon and some birds can be seen resting and preening their feathers in the morning while others are skittish and hide in the tall grasses or in the dense thicket of trees. Some other birds can be seen wading in the shallow waters. One can catch a glimpse of nests teetering on the treetops. The wetland, spread over an area of 308 hectares, lies in a reserve forest area in Gautam Budh Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh. Technically, a wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally and has a distinct ecosystem.

Picnickers throng the wetland alongside habitual visitors like birdwatchers and photography enthusiasts. “In the last few years, the Surajpur wetland has been developed and nature trails established to allow the visitors a glance of the mosaic of habitats—woodland, grassland and marshy area. Mounds have been created for the development of heronry in the water body. The visitor zone around the wetland has been developed with its lawns and pathways,” says Charan Singh, forest guard, Surajpur Reserve Forest.

The creation of embankments and bunds around the wetland ensures the availability of water. The forest department is busy weeding out invasive species of water hyacinth as well as the dense algal growth from the wetland. Singh claims that there has been an increase in the number of migratory birds as well as enriched local biodiversity due to these developments. As per the findings of the recent Asian Waterbird Census (AWC), 2019 a total of 42 resident and 21 migratory bird species were recorded against last year’s total of 35 bird species at Surajpur wetland.

A study by Nasim Ahmad Ansari et al highlights the significant record of avifauna of the Surajpur wetland, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh and forms the first record of its kind. The study conducted during March 2010 to February 2013 noted a total of 186 bird species belonging to 44 families. As per the study, the mosaic of habitat types within the wetland serves as an ideal refuge for avifauna.

All this would not have been possible without the untiring efforts of local activists engaged in real-world environmental struggles and politics.  

Wetland status to Surajpur

Wildlife, once flourished here, is faced with pressures due to the rapidly urbanising areas nearby, especially various real estate projects, including a sports city. Developments in recent years have tried to reduce the area to a tourist spot rather than maintain it as a natural reserve forest area. An ambitious project by the Uttar Pradesh government in 2014 included Surajpur wetland as a part of a 2000-acre eco-park to develop eco-tourism in Gautam Budh Nagar district. This led to encroachment as well as the felling of nest trees in the wetland.

“In spite of the fact that Surajpur was a part of reserve forest area, no clearances were sought from the union ministry of environment, forest and climate change. Roadway construction, landscaping, contouring and setting up of a parking lot continued. Hundreds of old trees of palm, peepal and neem have been felled and plantation of new trees of alstonia and ficus were done. These ornamental trees do not add much of environmental value, and in fact, adversely impact the natural habitat. Some trees were felled illegally in connivance with forest department employees,” says Vikrant Tongad, founder of Social Action for Environment (SAFE), an NGO set up in 2013 in the area.   

SAFE filed a plea in the National Green Tribunal (NGT) objecting to development projects inside the sanctuary following which the NGT, on June 3, 2016, stayed construction inside the wetland and sought reports from the Uttar Pradesh government as well as the Centre on the issue. The forest department was compelled to shelve the eco-park project inside the wetland and forest reserve.

The green lung in Greater Noida was granted the wetland status on September 14, 2018 by the NGT. The petition was filed by SAFE that went on to file several public interest litigations on environmental issues since its inception. The NGT order based on the petition filed in 2016 restricts any construction in the wetland and ruled that all wetland conservation and management rules would be applicable in 60 ha of the low lying area of the 308 ha reserve forest. The legal acknowledgement of the patch as a wetland was a welcome step and locals hoped that the ongoing construction work around the premises of Surajpur would stop.

“Our demand was that the government takes necessary steps to protect the wetland, which plays a pivotal role in groundwater recharge. We have been fighting to stop the misuse of groundwater by private realtors and at the same time to protect the green cover around the wetland,” says Tongad. Hailing from Khedi Bhanauti village that flanks the wetland, Tongad spent his teenage and undergraduate years organising the youth in the area on local issues.

Six more connected wetlands

SAFE, the petitioner moved the tribunal to accord wetland status to six other water bodies that were part of a cascade of wetlands in and around Surajpur. The chain of wetlands has been disturbed by a wall that was erected to protect and fence the reserve forest area of Surajpur. This has been a point of contention with the forest department, which went ahead with constructions that messed up the drainage system in the area. Worried that construction activity would disturb wetlands and impact groundwater recharge in the district, the petitioners took the matter to the NGT. However, the NGT had in its September 14, 2018 order disposed of the plea to declare all six water bodies as wetlands citing lack of revenue record to corroborate the claim.

“This happened even when we placed on record the wetland atlas prepared by Space Application Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation, which mapped around 2,01,503 wetlands in the country. We did this, as there were no revenue records corroborating the fact that other six low lying areas are wetlands,” says Tongad. The Uttar Pradesh government responded to the NGT saying that the six wetlands do not fulfil the criteria of the purported wetland under rule 3 of the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2010 as well as the Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017.

The six low lying areas are also wetlands and they should also be accordingly notified. The conservationists moved the Supreme Court to protect six more wetlands, which on February 20, 2019 issued notices to the Centre and Uttar Pradesh on the plea challenging the NGT’s order refusing to declare Surajpur as wetland. What the court decides remains to be seen.

It is not just Surajpur, wetlands are being encroached upon by private real estate and government in urban landscapes across the country. The wetlands (conservation and management) rules, 2017, notified by the environment ministry, decentralises wetlands management by giving states powers to not only identify and notify wetlands within their jurisdictions but also keep a watch on prohibited activities. The rules have also tried to indirectly widen the ambit of permitted activities by inserting the 'wise use' principle, giving powers to state-level wetland authorities to decide what can be allowed in the larger interest. “This is precarious because states have not had a good track record in conserving and managing wetlands. The new rules also do away with environmental impact assessment that used to be compulsory for taking up any activity on wetlands,” says Tongad.

In this scenario of weakened conservation laws, the task of activists in campaigning and protesting to save wetlands becomes imperative.

According to the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) website, access to toilets has improved in India and 28 out of 36 states and Union Territories are now open defecation free (ODF). While that’s good news, managing faecal sludge in ODF states in an eco-friendly way continues to be a big challenge. 

In India, septic tanks are the go-to method for faecal sludge management. The toilet’s septic tank is filled with urine, faecal matter and water. When the tank is full, the waste is emptied either manually or using machines. However, this method has various limitations like faecal matter getting dumped close to the habitation which would affect the soil and the sources of water.

“A recent study by WaterAid India finds that despite the promotion of twin-pit toilets by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation, there seems to be a high preference for septic tank toilets by the beneficiaries. Out of 1,000 households which were surveyed in the study, 24 percent preferred septic tanks. But the problem is, what people call septic tanks are not according to the Bureau of Indian Standards. This will surely lead to contamination of soil and water in the long run,” says Anurag Gupta, coordinator of WaterAid, Chhattisgarh.

Gramalaya, a non-government organisation (NGO) working on water and sanitation in India since 1987 successfully demonstrated that with the use of eco-friendly toilets, the problem of faecal sludge could be addressed in an effective and sustainable way. Gramalaya field-tested several rural and urban sanitation models for individual households and schools. 

Here are three eco-friendly toilet projects in Chhattisgarh that claims to have had sustainable results. These projects were implemented by Samarthan, an NGO working for the marginalised in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh under the technical assistance of WaterAid, an NGO working in the water and sanitation sector in India.

Evapotranspiration toilet

Evapotranspiration toilet technology is an eco-friendly technology and a zero waste model. It is a natural, zero discharge system which digests, absorbs, and releases human excreta. It was developed and popularised over the last two to three decades by permaculture practitioners in different countries, especially the US and Brazil. But in India, this technology was tried successfully in Raebareli district in Uttar Pradesh by an independent researcher Marta Vanduzer-Snow.

The evapotranspiration toilet uses old tyres as the main component for the faecal digester tank. The toilet’s tank is lined with a non-porous material and then filled with layers that consist of broken bricks, tyres, stones, sand and soil. The tyres are arranged in a trench forming a tunnel. On top, broadleaf plants like banana and canna are planted to absorb water from the soil. 

“The toilet technology is based on the principle that anaerobic digestion that converts a portion of the human excreta into biogas, exiting from the front and back-stand pipes. The digested waste from the digester travels up through capillary action. It contains nutrients that are absorbed by the plant roots. Evapotranspiration removes the liquid, either transpiring through the plants or evaporating at the surface from the soil,” says Anurag Gupta, coordinator of WaterAid, Chhattisgarh.

For field demonstration, in 2018, WaterAid first tested this technology in government girls’ school hostel at Sarona Panchayat in Kanker district. It houses 50 tribal students and has six toilets. The hostel has two septic tanks which need to be emptied three times in a year manually. The hostel also faces problems in disposing of the faecal matter, the cost of which is Rs 18000- Rs 20,000 a year.

With WaterAid's technical inputs, the Samarthan team disconnected the septic tanks of the hostel from the six toilets and directly connected the outlet of the toilet pipes to the two evapotranspiration digesters. It took two days to install the entire system with an approximate cost of Rs 25000. The best part of this technology is that the size of the evapotranspiration system could be modified according to the need of the users. The construction cost will then vary accordingly.

Within a month of its installation, the project team received a positive response from the school authorities. 

“We are very happy with this toilet system. For better performance, we have planted some more canna and banana plants on the digester tank which has made our surroundings greener. The toilet use of the students has significantly improved because now our toilets don't stink and no one defecates in the open,” says Samaru Kodopi, school principal, Sarona girls school.

After the successful implementation of the project, the Samarthan and WaterAid wanted to test this system in another location. In the same year, they took another initiative and selected the defunct community toilet at Shankarnagar slum in Kumhari, a small town in Durg district. 

The municipal council of Kumhari had built a community toilet in Shankarnagar which, due to lack of maintenance, had become dysfunctional. The filthy smell from the septic tank became a serious problem for the residents. With no other alternative, the residents started defecating in the open.

Due to the lack of space in the built-up area of the community toilet complex, WaterAid decided to use the existing septic tank. They suggested to Samarthan that they connect the outlet of the septic tank of the community toilet to the evapotranspiration digester. The overflow of the sludge from the septic tank was diverted to the digester. The idea worked and the toilet usage by the residents of Shankarnagar improved.

“The newly installed system is advanced, well maintained, does not smell and looks nice. Most of the residents who don't have a household toilet have started using the community toilet facility on a regular basis now,” says Santoshi Sona, a resident of Shankarnagar.  

“Due to its high success rate, the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation has added this technology to the list of appropriate toilet technology design. Implementing this type of toilet model could be very effective in places where sewage network systems do not exist,”  says Manish Jha, programme coordinator, Samarthan. 

Bio Toilet 

Bio-toilet is a next-generation environment-friendly toilet which converts human faeces into gas and water with the help of anaerobic bacterial Inoculum, a bacterial culture medium. This system is completely maintenance-free and does not require any sewerage system. These bio-toilets can be installed anywhere and doesn't need a big septic tank or a sewage facility.

The toilet has a multi-chambered bio-tank for the storage of human waste. As the waste flows down through different chambers that contain the multi-strain bio-media, the waste converts fully into non-toxic neutral water and methane gas.  

Madhulal Chakradhari, a man in his late 40s is one such beneficiary out of the six who built this toilet in his house at Modimathwara village of Pandripani Panchayat in Kanker district. A mason himself, he knew well that the septic tank model has not worked well in his area. So, when he received Rs 12000 from the government for toilet construction under SBM, he invested another Rs 10,000 for installing a bio-digester in his toilet. 

In Kanker, WaterAid, together with the field team of Samarthan provided their inputs in the construction of the first six toilets in the district. After the successful demonstration of six bio-toilets in Kanker, the district administration has agreed to expand the construction of bio-toilets to other areas. In the Durgukondal block of the Kanker district, 45 household bio-toilets were constructed in two panchayats with a hard rock terrain. 

Later, Raigarh district administration adopted the bio-toilet model in the hard rock terrain area. Under the SBM, more than 200 household bio-toilets were constructed in Raigarh. The additional cost for construction of bio-toilets apart from SBM toilet fund per household had been provisioned from District Mineral Foundation (DMF), an NGO working for the interest and benefit of persons and areas affected by mining-related operations. The disadvantages of this model include high logistics cost involved in the transportation of bacteria, higher cost than a leach-pit toilet and other logistical issues.

EcoSan Toilet 

EcoSan is a dry composting toilet with a separate opening for collection of urine. It can provide sanitation in an eco-friendly way in difficult terrains and in areas with high water tables. The entire structure of the toilet is constructed on a raised platform.

The district administrations of Korba and Kanker districts facilitated the construction of 140 EcoSan toilets in 14 panchayats under the SBM with technical help from WaterAid and Samarthan. In Kanker, the district administration had provided additional incentive from the District Mineral Foundation (DMF) to cover the extra cost incurred on construction on Ecosan toilets. 

“We used poly-fibre squatting pans for EcoSan toilets. Since these were not available in Chhattisgarh and had to be purchased from another state, the cost per toilet increased to around Rs 16,000. This cost was not viable and made it difficult to get support from the government's Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan programme (formerly the Total Sanitation Campaign), which can provide up to Rs 10,000 for the construction of household toilets. To ensure the sustainability of the project, the unit cost of the toilet has to be reduced. Thus, WaterAid, instead of procuring traditional poly-fibre pans, trained masons to construct the floor of the toilets as EcoSan pans. This has considerably reduced the cost of the toilet to just Rs 12,000 per unit,” says Rajendra Soni, SBM cluster Coordinator, Kanker.

Chicu and her green toilet video will provide an overview of the ecosan toilet.

See more photos here.

Fluoride, arsenic, nitrate, and other chemicals in drinking water pose significant health risks (such as fluorosis and arsenicosis) to our population. According to government data (2016), about 21 million people in over 23,500 habitations were affected by arsenic and fluoride contaminated groundwater. In fact, while replying to a query in Parliament (December 2018), the Minister of State for Drinking Water and Sanitation mentioned that out of 25,000 odd habitations across 16 states, 15,811 were affected by arsenic, and 9,660 were affected by fluoride.

In general, chemicals occur naturally in underground rocks. Hence, drinking water sourced from groundwater is more prone to chemical contamination. Excessive exploitation of groundwater has increased the exposure of chemicals in groundwater.  Because of this, in the last decade or so the government has made a conscious attempt to move away from groundwater, and surface water-based drinking water supply schemes have been set up. Additionally, Union budgets have allocated specific amounts to improve the quality of drinking water, and dedicated task forces and specific sub-missions have been constituted to address water quality problems.

Yet, chemical contamination of drinking water continues to be a major concern in India. In addition to the existing contamination, new contaminants like selenium and uranium have emerged. Clearly, something is not working.

Expanding the current imagination

The current imagination of safe drinking water is limited to surface water-based drinking water supply schemes and installing large-scale water treatment systems. But these solutions are infrastructure-focused; time- and cost-intensive. People also find it difficult to maintain them.

“We need to build a basket of safe water options to pick and choose from.”

We need simple, low-cost, easy to maintain solutions in the mix—identifying and protecting safe sources, rainwater harvesting and recharge of groundwater, improving nutritional status, and more. In other words, we need to build a basket of safe water options to pick and choose from—a different approach to water quality management in India.

An integrated approach is necessary

Water quality management in India needs to combine actions from all the relevant sectors (including water, health, nutrition, education, women and child welfare). One way of doing this is by building networks—practitioners across fields of work can come together to take care of the different aspects that go into water quality management, such as:

1. Define and communicate
   Water quality testing, nutritional and health surveys are important to define the problem. Survey results also have to be communicated in a simple manner to support planning.
   
   
2. Plan and budget
   Based on the survey results, a planning and budgeting process needs to be facilitated with a view to mitigate the problem. The actual execution follows the planning process.
   
   
3. Train and monitor
   Local institutions at various levels are identified and strengthened to monitor the execution. These institutions also become natural custodians for managing water quality in the long run.

One way of bringing these players together is through building networks. At the moment we have two such networks, that were conceived by Arghyam, and work on the problem of fluoride and arsenic in drinking water.

“We have understood the importance of an integrated approach to address the water quality problem.”

Over the last five years, these water quality networks have helped to define the water quality problem, connected ideas and individuals, focused on solutions, and fleshed out an approach to mitigate the problem at scale. They have roped in technology enthusiasts to test water quality, medical doctors and nutritionists to design health surveys, communicators to create messaging around the problem, and local nonprofits and the district administration  to lead the planning, execution and monitoring process.

Two organisations, INREM Foundation (who we represent) and SaciWaters, have anchored these networks. Over time, we have understood the importance of an integrated approach to address the water quality problem. We also learnt a few key lessons along the way.

What we learned

1. Measure health outcomes
   Water, nutrition and education are some of the most relevant sectors that influence or get influenced by water quality. But finally, it is about health. The only way to assess whether a water quality management programme has worked or not, is to measure the health outcomes. Hence it is crucial that health outcomes are factored in the design and execution of water quality management programmes.
   
   
2. Work at a district level
   Partnerships with District Collectors’ offices can work wonders. A separate unit—within the District Collector’s Office (for example, District Fluorosis Mitigation Centre, an institution originally designed by UNICEF in Nalgonda)—can lead to role clarity and better inter-departmental coordination.
   
   
3. Focus on facilitation
   Organisations often find it difficult to collaborate. Facilitation creates the space for dialogue and helps to find the peg for joint action. We have found it useful to begin the interventions based on a common minimum agreement, rather than waiting for a broader agreement to emerge. Equally important is finding the right facilitators—people who can build trust and a sense of reciprocity, while asking critical questions that enable reflection and learning.
   
   
4. Share and learn
   It is easy to get immersed in day-to-day execution. Hence it is important to create platforms where people can share lessons, learn from each other and sharpen their own understanding.
   
   
5. Engage at a policy level 
   In order to reach more people exposed to water quality problems, we need to look at a policy-level engagement. It is time is to learn from the experience of water quality networks, and apply these practice principles to policy. Perhaps then, we will begin to see the true network effects—a tipping point that will propel us to ensure safe drinking water for all.

This article has been republished with permission from India Development Review (IDR). It was originally published here.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

AYAN BISWAS Ayan Biswas is a development consultant.  He is one of the architects of water quality networks. Ayan has researched, designed, managed and evaluated programs cutting across development domains. Ayan led the research and advocacy portfolio at Arghyam. Until recently, he also led Akvo’s partnerships in South Asia. At present, Ayan consults with various national international and national organisations, donors and research agencies.

VIKAS RATANJEE Vikas Ratanjee works as Policy Advocacy and Partnerships Manager at INREM Foundation. He is one of the few people instrumental for the formation of the Fluoride Knowledge and Action Network, a nationwide movement on getting policymakers and larger civil society actors together to focus on the issue. As part of his role in INREM, he has worked closely with government ministries and programs at different levels, especially at a district level to develop institutional mechanisms for mitigating fluorosis and water quality issues. Before INREM, Vikas worked for governments in Namibia and Rwanda and strengthened their public delivery systems.

UN releases the World Water Development Report 2019

During the 40th session of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC), and in conjunction to the World Water Day, the United Nations has launched the World Water Development Report, Leaving no one behind. The report demonstrates how improvements in water resources management and access to water supply and sanitation services are essential to addressing various social and economic inequities, such that ‘no one is left behind’ when it comes to enjoying the multiple benefits and opportunities that water provides. The report took note of the international human rights law that obliges states to work towards achieving universal access to water and sanitation for all, without discrimination, while prioritizing those most in need. 

India uses largest amount of groundwater in the world: Report

To mark World Water Day on March 22, the WaterAid, a non-profit organisation, has released a report titled Beneath the Surface: The State of the World's Water 2019. As per the report,  India accounted for almost one-fourth of the total groundwater extracted globally, more than that of China and the US combined. Moreover, India has used the largest amount of groundwater, 24 percent of the global total, along with this, the country's rate of groundwater depletion has increased by 23 percent between 2000 and 2010. Further, ther report pointed that wheat and rice are the two most important and highest water-guzzling crops that India produced and that there is a need to replace these crops matching with ecology and the amount of water available in the area. 

Despite the Namami Gange project, water quality of Ganga has worsened in 3 years 

According to the analysis of the Sankat Mochan Foundation (SMF), a Varanasi-based NGO, it has been revealed that coliform bacteria and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) have increased significantly in the Ganga river in the last three years. The data collected by SMF at Tulsi Ghat shows that the faecal coliform count rose from 4.5 lakh - 5.2 crore in January 2016 to 3.8 crore - 14.4 crore in February 2019. Similarly, BOD level has risen from 46.8-54 mg/l to 66-78 mg/l during this period. However, a slight improvement was seen in tapping discharge of sewage into the Ganga river during this period. 

Tamil Nadu to face a thirsty summer, worse than 2017

As per the data by the State Ground and Surface Water Resources Data Centre, it has been revealed that water levels in 19 of the 32 districts in the state is in the red category. Moreover, groundwater levels in Tiruvallur, Kancheepuram and Vellore have dropped by an average of 1 metre from January. Although the water levels were not recorded for Chennai, but the decreasing water levels in neighbouring districts directly affects Chennai’s drinking water sources and people have to rely on private water tankers for drinking water. According to officials, though cyclone Gaja brought moderate rainfall to the southern districts, however, due to lack of water retaining structures, groundwater levels went up only marginally. 

Buffer zones of 10 water bodies in Bengaluru is in danger

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report of the proposed elevated corridor project in Bengaluru has revealed that the project alignment will cut through buffer zones of at least 10 laakes and rajakaluves in the city. The water bodies under threat includes Varthur Lake, Agara Lake, Ulsoor Lake, Hebbal Lake and KR KR Puram Lake, among others. Moroeover, the corridor alignment will pass as close as 1m to 30m from boundaries of some of the lakes and rajakaluves. However, as per the Karnataka Road Development Corporation (KRDCL), the project implementing agency, most of the project alignment is on existing roads and there is little threat to the water bodies. 

This is a roundup of important news published between March 13 - 20, 2019. Also read policy matters this week.

UN Environment Assembly adopts resolutions on single-use plastics, nitorgen management piloted by India

The environment ministry has informed that at the fourth session of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA), two resolutions piloted by India on single-use plastics and sustainable nitrogen management have been adopted. Apart from hosting a session on Global Partnerships: Key to Unlocking Resource Efficiency and Inclusive Green Economies, the Indian delegation also participated in a panel discussion on the Need for Additional Commitments of Public Finance and ways to Maximize Mobilization of Climate Finance in the conference held in Nairobi from March 11 to 15. 

Government turns a blind eye to lead poisoning in drinking water through PVC pipes

Taking note of the risk of lead leaching from the polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes into drinking water, the National Green Tribunal, in May 2017, directed the environment ministry to set standards for the use of lead in PVC pipes within four months of the order and expeditiously come up with a phase-out plan. However, almost two years on, there are no standards in place and no plan to phase out the use of the heavy metal. Moreover, the ministry has dodged the responsibility of setting standards on the Bureau of Indian Standards and raised doubts about whether the lead in drinking water originated from PVC pipes. 

Pollution along Hindon river: NGT slams UP government

The National Green Tribunal has ordered the Uttar Pradesh government to furnish a Rs 5 crore compliance bond for failure to redress deadly health hazards faced by residents in villages lying along the Hindon river. Moreover, the tribunal has warned of forfeiting the amount if the state government is not able to implement an action plan within six months of passing the order. As per the experts from the central and state government, the dissolved oxygen at certain stretches of the river in Ghaziabad, Gautam Budh Nagar, Meerut and Baghpat was found to be nil, indicative of high pollution levels and no aquatic life.

Assam children come up with their agenda for the national elections

Under the guidance of UNICEF, Assam and the Adolescent and Children Rights Network, Assam (ACRNA), over 500 children of the age group 14 to 19 years voiced their opinion for the development of Children’s Agenda for the upcoming national election. The children have requested for flood-resilient infrastructure because due to flooding, schools become inaccessible for them. Moreover, hundreds of schools across the state remain submerged or are turned into relief camps hindering education during the flood season. The agenda also noted the challenge of availing safe drinking water and proper toilets during the flood season. 

Government of India must abandon the Draft National Forest Policy 2018: Human rights group to UN 

International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA), a global human rights organisation, has written a letter to the United Nations’ Committee on Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) to urge the Indian government to abandon the Draft National Forest Policy of 2018 and to involve indigenous peoples in the compensatory afforestation programme. The letter draws the attention of violation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA) and Provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act of 1996 (PESA) by the Indian authorities. The letter goes on to say that the changes in the Act are being made to exploit natural resources as well as utilise about $15 billion collected under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act.

This is a roundup of important policy matters from March 13 - 20, 2019. Also, read news this week.

According to WASH watch report (2017), over 150 million people in India live without access to safe drinking water. A majority of these people reside in underserved or unserved sections of the society that lives beyond the pipe. As a result, they are dependent on water sources that are not safe for drinking, leading to waterborne diseases. Diarrhoea continues to be a leading cause of death in children below the age of five. As per data, approximately 321 children deaths are reported every day in India (WHO, 2015). 

Bad economics, poor infrastructure and a lack of reliable and sustainable water sources are challenges faced by these communities. It is essential to find a solution that can be easily replicable and can be executed at scale. To address these challenges, we need to focus on helping these underserved communities through a structured, innovative and collaborative solution that leverages technology. This will, in turn, drive transformation at the grassroots level and provide the communities with safe drinking water that is easily accessible and free from contamination. 

Piramal Sarvajal, an initiative of Piramal Foundation, is a mission-driven social enterprise, committed to design and deploy innovative solutions to provide affordable access to safe drinking water in underserved areas. Today, Sarvajal is reaching out to approximately 600,000 people daily through 1400 touch points across 20 Indian states.

Piramal Sarvajal Technology 

Piramal Sarvajal has pioneered the deployment of remotely tracked and decentralised drinking water purification systems that allow for greater accountability for day-to-day operations. Sarvajal developed first-of-its-kind solar powered, cloud-connected, smart card-based automatic water vending machines, popularised as Water ATMs. Piramal Sarvajal has been granted two patents in USA for the above mentioned technologies. By leveraging these innovations, it has been able to successfully demonstrate sustainable community-level decentralised drinking water solutions built upon the foundation of quality control, operational accountability and price transparency. Cashless transactions, off-grid capability, pay-per-use methodology, 24x7 service availability, user-level transaction mapping, real-time impact monitoring and provision for targeted subsidies are the unique advantages offered by this solution. 

The technologies used at Piramal Sarvajal are: 

• Water Purification Plants: Sarvajal’s purification model is agnostic of the method of filtration, utilising purification technology as per the source water. Sarvajal water is purified through a site-designed five-step filtration process including media filtration, micron filtration, reverse osmosis (RO) filtration and UV purification.  

• Soochak Controller: Piramal Sarvajal leverages telecom technology to make ‘Locally Operated-Centrally Managed’ public service delivery more accountable. The technology innovation comes from being able to have operational oversight and provide proactive service support across a widely distributed network of local solutions. Soochak, a patented remote monitoring device developed by Piramal Sarvajal enables real-time monitoring, process controlling and data tracking for multi-location operations. This Programme Logic Controller (PLC) based device is installed in each water purification plant and tracks the plant’s functional status to ensure machine health of the units and the quality sensors assure product quality. Soochak’s unique ability to remotely monitor and control purification plant operations enables the effective and efficient deployment of resources. 

• Automatic Water Vending Machines: The Sarvajal Water ATMs are made of concrete and are robust structures that are cloud-connected, solar powered and RFID enabled that dispense water through RFID card or coin. The operation involves the machine checking the card balance and captures each transaction in real-time through cloud connectivity using GPRS mechanism. Transporting water from the purification site to the ATMs requires a modified tank-mounted vehicle that would collect water from the site of purification and fill the ATMs through no-touch transfer mechanism. As soon as the water level goes down a certain limit in the ATM, an alert is generated and the ATM gets refilled by water carried by the vehicle from the plant site. The Water ATMs dispense flexible volume of water ranging from 0.1 to 20 litres through a single transaction. Piramal Sarvajal’s water ATM can be custom designed to be installed at the plant site or as a standalone structure at a distance from the plant site.

Serving the underserved in urban areas 

In urban India, more than 20 percent of the population is beyond-the-pipe (BTP), which means that they lack access to safe drinking water. Usually, these BTP communities reside in slums that lack basic civic amenities including water. These urban water woes have created new categories of the underserved, calling for customised and pioneering solutions. 

In order to serve non-piped areas within a cluster, Sarvajal leverages its unique “Hub & Spokes” model designed to serve areas that may not be well equipped with power or piped water supply. It comprises of a single water treatment system in the community with decentralised dispensing units in a co-centric pattern. This is achieved through the installation of state-of-the-art purification units, with standalone solar-powered water ATMs. Purification technology and capacity of the purification unit is chosen on the basis of the quality of water available and regularity of power supply/target population respectively. 

The water at the point of dispensing meets the IS 105000 standards of drinking water quality. The entire setup is enabled by remote monitoring that provides real-time data on quality and quantity parameters including volume, total dissolved solids (TDS) of water and can track each individual transaction. 

Piramal Sarvajal has pioneered the Hub & Spoke business model and has installed it effectively in seven resettlement colonies (slums) at Delhi with the support of Delhi Jal Board.  Its experience in Delhi has shown that this model contributes to a greater degree of resilience compared to grid/network solutions especially in times of disaster or man-made service disruption.  After Delhi, Bhubaneshwar is the first Smart City to set-up a 'Hub & Spokes' water ATM project and has partnered with Piramal Sarvajal to set up the decentralized safe drinking water solution through 4 Hub Purification Units and 40 ATMs. 

At 42 years, Bhagwat Ghagare seems young. But he is old enough to have seen his village prosper and decline many times. Farming had traditionally been small and distress migration rampant at Kumbharwadi in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra.

Between 1998 and 2002, a non-profit organisation, Watershed Organisation Trust (WOTR), initiated a work related to rainwater harvesting and soil conservation. Villagers dug trenches and ponds, built farm bunds and planted trees, leading to groundwater recharge. Around 40 borewells came up to fetch groundwater, farm area doubled to reach 330 hectares and sugarcane and wheat replaced millets and pulses. Everything seemed perfect except that the water was not endless. 

Within nine years, crops started failing in want of crucial, fag end irrigations. Sugarcane was the first casualty. “By 2011, we stopped getting crops during Rabi (autumn-winter) season. Many would migrate with their cattle towards river floodplains during those months. There was neither fodder nor water for them in the village,” says Ghagare. “Some families would take up sugarcane harvesting work in neighbouring regions. Almost everything we had gained was withering.” It was time for Kumbharwadi to undergo another turnaround. And this was to come through the science of calculations. 

Water budgeting, especially for crops, is gaining currency across the country thanks to experiences of villages like Kumbharwadi which continue to squander off their hydrological resources to meet market demands. Farmers in semi-arid Punjab are growing paddy that has depleted groundwater tables while their counterparts in north Karnataka irrigate arecanut plantations by sinking multiple borewells which fail regularly. Paddy is more suitable for high rainfall plain areas like West Bengal and Kerala and arecanut does well in coastal areas besides parts of Western Ghats which experience wet weather. Water budgeting helps farmers recognise such follies. 

Crop water budgeting is gaining currency across the country thanks to experiences of villages which continue to squander off their hydrological resources to meet market demands

Groundwater and crops

Estimates suggest that the groundwater level in India declined by 61 percent between 2007 and 2017. Around 89 percent of groundwater is extracted for irrigation followed by domestic (nine percent) and industrial (two percent) uses. There were 20.52 million wells and tube wells used for agriculture in the country in 2013-14, says the 5th Minor Irrigation Census. We are also digging deeper.

In 2006-07, there were 1.45 million deep tube wells/borewells, which grew at a rate of 79 percent to reach 2.6 million in 2013. More than 12 percent of these borewells, however, either dried up or were yielding low discharge due to over-extraction, adding to the financial burden of already indebted farmers. 

It is thus essential to monitor and regulate the use of groundwater, especially for irrigation. Most of the rainwater harvesting and recharge work is, however, focussed on increasing the supply to make villages prosper through farming, dairy and meat production.

“When more water is available, people start growing water-intensive cash crops or expand the farming area to maximise benefits,” says Eeshwar Kale, senior researcher at WOTR. “After the conservation work, we realised that we now need to pay attention to demand management and water governance at the local level. This could only be possible if people were able to understand and quantify groundwater,” he says.

Once they understand scientific aspects of groundwater, people can formulate management rules for judicious use

It is easier to estimate surface water by looking at ponds and tanks and plan accordingly. On the other hand, groundwater is hidden in complex layers of soil, rocks, sand and gravel. Farmers possess traditional knowledge about groundwater, but that is not always enough to make informed decisions especially when means of extraction, like borewell technology, have changed drastically. This is why organisations are now working on the transfer of technical knowledge to people. 

“Once they understand scientific aspects of groundwater, people can decide management rules for using it more carefully,” says Uma Aslekar, the senior scientist with Advanced Center for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), a Pune-based non-profit organisation training people in groundwater science. “They realise that groundwater is a common resource, not private property, and hence require collective action,” she adds.

Rain gauges and water calculators

WOTR installed two rain gauges in Kumbharwadi to capture location specific rainfall instead of government data that covers the whole block or district. A sensor instrument is used to calculate the groundwater level. The sensor, lowered with a rope into a borewell or dug well, beeps at touching water, giving its exact depth.

This data is combined with the discharge rate of borewells (amount of water from borewell collected in a bucket in one minute). Villagers then compare this information with different water usages, including those for domestic purposes, animals and agriculture. There is already scientific data available on water availability for each crop. “We have around 25 indicators to calculate whether the village is water surplus or deficit,” Kale says. 

This information about water is put on public display boards. If there is less water available than the need, villagers start thinking about how to make do with what they have. “For instance, we know wheat takes four months of irrigation but green peas and potatoes need two-three months. So we go for these crops and in worst case scenario, fodder grass,” says Ghagare. “This means we are able to get something even during water-scarce years as compared to earlier times when the whole crop of wheat would fail for want of last two irrigations.”

For the village with 750 population, Kumbharwadi has not had another borewell in addition to the existing 40 borewells. “Once we understood the concept, there was a consensus not to have new borewells. Instead, the farms were put under drip and sprinkler irrigation to get more from drawing less water,” Ghagare says.

Pomegranate, mango, green peas, maize and quinoa are the new crops that farmers are growing beside their old favourites of vegetables, millets, wheat and pulses.  

“People don’t need to migrate because there is enough water for everyone. Also, labour work is available on vegetable farms throughout the year,” he says, adding, “Our dependence on tanker service has reduced. This is the result of water budgeting.” 

WOTR has extended this concept to more than 100 villages in Maharashtra and Telangana. The operation and maintenance costs for the equipment is met through village development plans that combine government schemes with water budget exercises. “Our main focus is to build a cadre of water stewards who will continue to do this exercise even when we leave the village,” Kale says. “They should not be dependent on us for monitoring or funds.”

Once we understood the concept, there was a consensus not to have new borewells. Instead, the farms were put under drip and sprinkler irrigation

In Randullabad village near Satara, Maharashtra, non-profit Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation (BAIF) dug trenches and planted trees to harvest rainwater that recharged groundwater. ACWADAM supplemented this work by guiding people in the study of groundwater and crop management.

Here farmers used to grow four types of crops during the Kharif (summer-monsoon) season and six crops in the Rabi (winter) till 2011-12. Today, nine different crops during the Kharif and 17 in the Rabi flourish in the same fields. ACWADAM also added market profitability to the calculation and found that green peas gave maximum profit per unit of pumping while wheat gave the least.

“We not only harvest rainwater but also use it wisely. Every year, we calculate rainfall and decide on the best crops to grow depending on water availability and market demand,” says Ganapat Jagtap, a farmer who was involved in the water harvesting and budgeting process. “Over the years, the area under wheat and tomato has reduced while peas and rajmah (kidney bean) have expanded.”

One of the main insights people gain through scientific understanding is that groundwater is a common resource held in large aquifers underground and not exclusive to the person who owns the land or the well. This new knowledge can thus thwart the first-mover advantage rich farmers enjoy in the race to the bottom of aquifers, at the expense of others. All rules related to groundwater use are presented and approved in the gram sabha. Anyone opposing these in Randullabad is counselled and if need be, compensated. 

“A poultry farmer wanted to have a borewell to get regular water supply for his hens. The gram sabha decided against it but provided an additional connection from the village’s drinking water well,” says Dr Prajakta Jagtap, former sarpanch of Randullabad. “The allocation is less than what a borewell would have provided for the poultry but it pacified the person,” she adds. 

During the drought period of 2012-13, when most villages in Marathwada and Western Maharashtra were struggling to meet drinking water needs, Randullabad was taking late Rabi and summer crops, thanks to this innovative governance.

During drought of 2012-13, when most villages in Marathwada and Western Maharashtra were struggling to meet drinking water needs, Randullabad was taking crops

Mixed results seen

Crop water budgeting is not easy and requires consistent involvement of people. The Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems (APFAMGS) is often hailed as a good example for people-led groundwater management and crop water budgeting. Farmers shared borewells, used drip and sprinklers and reduced the area under water-intensive crops. The monitoring, however, declined when implementing NGOs and government agencies withdrew from the village, especially in villages with weak social bonds, says a study by the International Water Management Institute.

Of 49 habitations in four districts, only three continued practices and activities started during the APFAMGS programme. Only 34.88 per cent of habitations continued to collect groundwater level data and the equipment needed repair or replacement in rest of the habitations. 

Government regulations should supplement the social rules to make the groundwater management and budgeting work

In villages where the system still worked, farmers had either organised themselves into cooperative credit societies or had continued commitment from the NGOs even after the project period. The study also found that farmers were more cautious and followed rules in villages where groundwater levels were low whereas negligence crept in at places with abundant groundwater. 

"Groundwater management and budgeting is a good concept but there are always farmers who don’t want to follow rules and maximise use of borewells,” says C. Bakkareddy, programme manager with WASSAN, one of the implementing non-profits under APFAMGS. “The only check for them is a strong village institute but that’s not always possible. Government regulations should supplement the social rules to make the idea work.”

Reporting for this story was supported by WaterAid India ‘WASH Matters 2018’ Media Fellowship Programme.

Activists seek President, PM intervention to protect mangrove trees in Maharashtra

Environmental groups Nature Connect and Shree Ekvira Aai Pratishtan (SEAP) have written to President Ram Nath Kovind and Prime Minister Narendra Modi to protect 53,465 mangrove trees from destruction by the bullet train project. The National High Speed Rail Corporation Limited (NHSRCL) has received the clearance from the Maharashtra Coastal Zone Management Authority (MCZMA) for its bullet train project that will lead to clearance of mangroves spread over 13.36 hectares area. The groups have also requested the environment ministry to not clear the final proposal and have launched a social media campaign asking the NHSRCL to find an alternative route for the project.

Nearly 2.18 crore farm families await payment from Centre under PM-KISAN scheme

With only a few days to go for the first payout deadline under PM-KISAN, nearly 44 percent of the farm families out of the 4.92 crore names submitted by states are still awaiting their funds. The names of these farm families are either caught up in processing or somewhere in a four-stage validation process set up belatedly to weed out fakes. The Centre introduced the PM-KISAN scheme in February that would pay Rs 6,000 per year to small farming families. The first instalment of Rs 2,000 is to be paid by March 31. 

Overuse of chemical pesticides takes a heavy toll on Gujarat's groundwater

Data revealed by the Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) suggests that 21 districts of Gujarat have reported issues of high salinity levels, 19 districts have reported high fluoride content, while 21 districts have high nitrate presence in groundwater. Around 12 Gujarat districts have reported high arsenic and six districts have reported high iron content as well. The report partially blames high consumption of groundwater resources that has led to a rise in chemical contaminants. Over-reliance on chemical pesticides and fertilisers is another cause for groundwater contamination in the state. 

UP to ban cultivation of summer paddy to save groundwater

Concerned over depleting groundwater, the Uttar Pradesh State Wetland Authority (SWA) has decided to ban cultivation of summer paddy that survives only on groundwater. As per SWA chief executive officer Vibhash Ranjan, a project undertaken by SWA to recharge groundwater by protecting and conserving 26,000 wetlands having an area of 2.5 hectare or above and 97,000 water bodies of smaller sizes will not succeed unless there is a ban on the production of summer paddy. 

Activists demand Narmada water sample test report

The water in the Sardar Sarovar Dam reservoir had turned black in February and water supply to 138 villages in Narmada and Chhota Udepur district was discontinued as a result. The preliminary report of the sample by Gujarat Water Supply and Sewage Board (GWSSB) had indicated the presence of sulphide in the water and later the authorities said that the water had a high level of bacteria but met all other parameters. However, the activists have demanded to have a look at the report and have questioned the extreme secrecy surrounding the sample test report. 

This is a roundup of important news published between March 21 - 26, 2019. Also read policy matters this week.

Lower Subansiri hydel project: SC seeks review of NGT's order granting nod to the project

Setting aside the order of the National Green Tribunal giving a go-ahead to the 2,000-MW Lower Subansiri hydroelectric project, the Supreme Court has called for a review of the project. The court has found fault in the manner in which NGT had brushed aside objections to the constitution of the expert committee to study the project. As per the petition filed, the three members of the expert committee had in the past either worked for or were associated with organisations which had a recommendatory role and furnished views in regard to the Subansiri Lower Project. 

Act to prevent groundwater misuse in Maharashtra will soon be a reality

The state government has granted its acceptance to many of the rules and regulations suggested under the proposed Maharashtra Groundwater (Development and Management) Act. A team of geologists from the city-based Groundwater Survey and Development Agency (GSDA) had put together their proposals and came up with the draft of the Act that aims to curb misuse of groundwater. However, farmers and other stakeholders have raised concerns regarding the draft Act such as licensing of every well and their geo-tagging. As per the GSDA officials, all these processes will be completed online, leaving no scope for discrepancies.

Telangana approaches SC to stop progress of Polavaram dam

Despite giving full consent to the Polavaram project at the time of Andhra Pradesh's bifurcation, Telangana has filed a petition in the Supreme Court to stop the progress of the project. In its petition, Telangana has sought the court's intervention in declaring that Andhra Pradesh has no right to Polavaram project. As per the state, Andhra has taken up the project, which is nearly 67 percent complete as of now, without undertaking an assessment of probable maximum flood (PMF) at Polavaram Dam and study of the backwater and other effects in Telangana state. 

Government allows mining in 170,000 hectares of forest in Chhattisgarh

The environment ministry has given clearance to Rajasthan Collieries Limited (RCL), a unit of Adani Enterprises Limited, for open cast coal mining in Parsa in Chhattisgarh’s dense Hasdeo Arand forests. Hasdeo Arand is one of the largest contiguous stretches of very dense forest in central India, spanning about 170,000 hectares. Parsa is one of the 30 coal blocks in Hasdeo Arand. The clearance has come as a big blow to activists who alleged that the approval to the project has been given despite pending legal issues and procedural lapses. Moreover, the clearance issued to Parsa mine is illegal because the environment ministry had categorised Hasdeo Arand as a no-go area for mining in 2009. 

NGT raps green ministry for not furnishing proper data

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has reprimanded the environment ministry for not furnishing proper data on the monitoring mechanism for compliance of conditions of environment clearance granted by the ministry. As per the NGT, the data merely mentions figures of the projects monitored and not the extent of defaults found and action taken. In the absence of adequate data, the NGT is unable to assess the effectiveness of monitoring mechanism and has now directed a senior official of the environment ministry to appear before it with the entire relevant data on April 29. 

This is a roundup of important policy matters from March 21 - 26, 2019. Also, read news this week.

Lead image source: Kakul baruah via Wikimedia Commons

Compiled by Pankaj Kumar S., Resource Person; additional research provided by Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate 5 July 2006

Original Query: Sharadbala Joshi, Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC),Loughborough University, UK

Posted: 16 June 2006

I have primarily been involved with urban projects which aimed at enhancing sustainable access to water supply and sanitation at local government levels. I am currently investigating reasons for the slow and difficult transfer or up scaling of good practices in urban areas. As the exchanges through Solution Exchange show, there are numerous interventions, including water and sanitation projects managed in a sustainable manner by women’s self-help groups, which have resulted in sustainable improvements in the lives of the poor in urban and rural areas. These models, if shared, can be adapted or replicated in other parts of India and other locations with similar contexts. However, knowledge about such good practices is primarily known amongst those associated with such interventions or networks and organizations with which such individuals and organizations are associated.

I am currently looking at processes for identification and recognition of good practices that are followed by local, national or award giving organizations for sustainable development approaches that can be adapted or transferred to similar contexts. I am interested in identifying why many organizations and individuals do not seek recognition through award giving organizations.

In the context of the above, and with specific reference to the WES sector, I would be grateful if members could share any experiences they are familiar with on the following:
Reward mechanisms that have been used effectively to promote and disseminate examples of sustainable access to water supply and sanitation in urban areas.
Relevance of factors such as social acceptability of awards or non-monetary recognition; the status or legitimacy of the award giving organization; eligibility requirements; application and selection processes etc.

Responses received with thanks from:

1. Digbijoy Bhowmik, Government of India-UNDP Project 'National Strategy for Urban Poor', New Delhi
2. Sumeeta Banerji, United Nations, New Delhi
3. Nafisa Barot, Utthan, Ahmedabad
4. S. Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, c/o Plan International, New Delhi
5. Avnish Jolly, Servants of The People Society, Chandigarh
6. A. Gurunathan, DHAN Foundation, Madurai
7. Hirenkumar Rajendrabhai Patel, PRAVAH, Ahmedabad
8. Arunabha Majumder, All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Kolkata
9. Debasish De, Delhi Minorities Commission, Government of NCT Delhi, New Delhi
10. Jyotsna Bapat, Senior Independent Consultant, Environment and Disaster Management, New Delhi
11. Sharadbala Joshi, Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University, UK
 Further contributions are welcome!

Summary of Responses

Discussions on Solution Exchange have repeatedly shown that while there are a huge number of successful experiences in India’s WES sector, few were scaled-up in other locations. Members intensely debated the causes for this phenomenon in response to a query on how reward mechanisms in urban areas could help promotion and dissemination of good experiences. They also deliberated on the social acceptability of awards in this context.

Respondents underlined that scaling-up of successful experiences is a function of many factors. Firstly, implementing agencies can mobilise resources for scaling-up useful practices only if they monitor government spending and undertake advocacy for ensuring its proper allocation. Scaling up also depends on the ability of implementing agencies to influence policies/programs and to bring about institutional reforms within government systems. Participants also emphasised the significance of convergence, collaboration, and information exchange in this context.

Members brought out one of the main reasons for lack of dissemination - people who implement programmes do not generally realise the importance of documentation. Such agencies also often have insufficient advocacy and presentations skills. Consequently, they can mobilise neither the funds nor the innovative ideas for wider diffusion of good practices.

Respondents outlined the role of incentives in scaling up good practices and pointed out that both explicit and implicit mechanisms of rewards could ensure that motivation levels remain high. They gave the example of urban toilet complexes, where profits were an explicit source of incentive. Other implicit incentives could be allotment of land for toilet complexes, free water, electricity, underground drainage connection or lease agreements with local bodies. In another scheme, public utilities received incentives
in the form of reduction of effective interest rates and interest free loans of up to 1% of project cost if they adopted innovations.

Different sets of rewards at different stages of project implementation are needed. At the initial stage, incentives to encourage communities to own and manage the programme and recover maintenance costs would be useful, as an experience from the slums in Bangladesh showed. Later, when projects have been successfully set up, awards such as  Nirmal Gram Puruskar and Sant Gadge Baba Swachhata Abhiyan would motivate communities to engage in better Operation and Management (O&M).

Another incentive mechanism, mentioned by members is through publicity and publishing of success stories and fellowships for documenting these case studies. In another case, the city government rewarded urban local bodies for protection and enhancement of the environment. Participants also suggested that schemes could divert the interest repaid by local bodies to IEC activities, further adding value to projects.

On the relevance of factors, such as the social acceptability of awards, respondents pointed out that often, non-monetary compensations were sufficient to encourage adoption and dissemination of successful experiences. To illustrate this, members cited a community toilet and bathroom building programme that gave beneficiaries space to design their own toilets and bathrooms.

Members indicated that in addition to financial incentives that come with awards, social recognition with its long-term implication is a motivating factor. Such recognition encourages stakeholders to contribute to better operation and management of assets created. Respondents also discussed individuals/agencies could be encouraged to apply for awards if they
adequately address the following constraints:

• Information about awards is not available.
• Application process demands too much investment of time and resources.
• Information required in applications requires much processing.
• Awards give recognition to individuals while many stakeholders are responsible for the intervention.
• The award process perceived as being biased and politicised.
• The 'prize money' is too little.

In this regard, respondents suggested that an analysis of institutionalisation of awards in non-WES sectors could give important learnings on creating incentives for wider dissemination. Members mentioned the Citigroup Social Entrepreneurs Award as an example of this institutionalisation. Some participants also cautioned the group about the dangers of over-incentivising. In one case, attractive incentives led to indiscriminate construction of toilets. Since communities were not part of the process from the beginning, people did ultimately not use these toilets.

Similarly, in another scheme, incentives led to large-scale plantations but lack of involvement of local communities led to the failure of the plantation. Accordingly, members felt that in addition to award mechanisms, the role of facilitators in involving communities, and disseminating information was crucial. In conclusion, members identified documentation, policy advocacy and dissemination as major factors that would lead to dissemination of successful experiences on a large scale. Sensitivity to monetary and non-monetary incentives and to the stage at which the project is would further enhance dissemination opportunities. The discussion revealed that institutionalisation of awards could keep the involvement of
people in mind, as over-incentivising had its own dangers.

Comparative Experiences

Reduced Interest Rates as Incentives (from Digbijoy Bhowmik, GOI-UNDP NSUP Project, New Delhi)

The National Capital Region Planning Board offers a performance linked incentive scheme for public utilities in the form of reduction of effective interest rates. The Board also provides interest free loans up to 1% of the project cost if the project adopts innovations.

Rewarding Social Entrepreneurs (from Sumeeta Banerji, United Nations, New Delhi)

Citigroup initiated the Micro Entrepreneur Award in association with the Global Micro Entrepreneur Award (GMA) program launched by the U.N. across 38 countries to mark the International Year of Microcredit 2005. It recognizes and honors leadership, entrepreneurial skills and best practices by individual micro entrepreneurs in India. Entrepreneurs in both rural and urban areas across the country are eligible.

From Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, c/o Plan International, New Delhi

Alternative Award Mechanisms

There are all sorts of reward mechanisms. One such is the building of urban toilet complexes. NGOs or SHGs, which undertake the building of toilets, may be “rewarded” in various manners. They might get the profits from managing the complex or have the land for building toilet complexes allotted to them. They may also receive free water, electricity or underground drainage connection to the toilets, or even have the local governing body give them the complexes on lease.

Rewarded through Cost Recovery

In Bangladesh slums, some NGOs helped the local community recover the cost of owning and managing water points. The NGOs assisted in ensuring a supply of water in a sustainable manner. However, this type of initiative requires an established management mechanism and the governments overall policy in the sector is also crucial for determining its success.

Sant Gadge Baba Swachchata Abhiyan

Also known as the Clean Villages Campaign, it aims to educate and motivate rural communities. Each year villages in different Gram Panchayats in Maharastra are evaluated by a team of experts using a set of criteria and awarded cash prizes. Villages interested in participating in the competition register undertake to implement various specified work, using their own resources which leads to an environmentally clean village.

Nirmal Gram Puraskaar

To add vigour to the TSC, in June 2003, GoI initiated an incentive scheme for fully sanitized and open efecation free Gram Panchayats, Blocks, and Districts called the 'Nirmal Gram Puraskar'. The incentive pattern is based on population criteria. The incentive provision is for PRIs as well as individuals and organizations that are the driving force for full sanitation coverage.

From  Hirenkumar Rajendrabhai Patel, PRAVAH, Ahmedabad

Public Recognition of Work

In Gujarat, the organization Charkha helps place articles about development projects in the area for regional newspapers to publish. Charkha collects case studies and stories about projects from development workers. This activity provides public recognition to individual development workers and projects, motivating them to write more about the good practices and gives civil society an opportunity to learn more about development projects in their area.

Fellowships to Disseminate Field Experiences

Charkha, an organization working in Gujarat is implementing a fellowship program for development workers. The organization assigns individuals different topics and they write about their field level experiences on that topic. Then Charkha takes on the responsibility of trying to get recognition for the case studies through its links with local media and also helps get books collecting field experiences published.

Awarding Urban Local Bodies (from Arunabha Majumder, All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Kolkata)

The West Bengal Pollution Control Board recently initiated an environmental excellence award for Urban Local Bodies (ULB) or municipalities. ULBs compete based on their efforts in the areas of environmental protection, improved environmental awareness, conditions and cleanliness and the development of green areas and plantation.

Non-monetary compensation (from Jyotsna Bapat, Senior Independent Consultant, Environment and Disaster Management, New Delhi

The USAID Fire project in Agra designed community toilets and bathing areas keeping the needs of the community in mind. This became an incentive for community members to continue using the toilets and bathing areas. The project used this non-monetary compensation approach to ensure effective and sustained use of the created assets.
 
From Debasish De, Delhi Minorities Commission, Government of NCT Delhi, New Delhi Poorly Managed Award Programme

A youth club in West Bengal to promote grass root programs implemented an internal reward system for its members. The system rewarded youths based on the number of low cost latrines in households. However, there was no mechanism to ensure installation was actually necessary and some youth provided households that did not need or want toilets. This resulted in some households failing to use the toilets and huge monetary losses.

Award Programme Fails to Involve Community

Using money from the Indira Priyadarshini Brikhshamitra award, some CBOs in West Bengal decided to implement a plantation program in an aid area of Bankura (locally called Tanr). The program took 100 hectares of land and independently planted plants. However, the program did not seek community involvement so when community participation was required to sustain the plantation program they were not motivated to do so, leading to a failure of the plantation.

Reward Scheme for Water Project (from Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate)

In 2002, the Thane Municipal Corporation (TMC) launched the Reduced Water Rate Deposit Scheme to raise capital for water works projects. TMC offered consumer two options, along with additional facilities; the options were:

1) One time payment, covering 60 months of service, or

2) Monthly payment, subject to the projected 15% annual fee increase for 55 months.

Unfortunately, less than 25% of households choose to participate.

Related Resources

Recommended Organizations

From Digbijoy Bhowmik, Government of India-UNDP Project ‘National Strategy for Urban Poor,’ New Delhi National Capital Region Planning Board, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India

http://ncrpb.nic.in/letter.htm

Serves as a financial institution offering a performance linked incentive scheme for public utilities in the form of reduction of effective interest rates

Incentive Scheme for Innovative Projects in the National Capital Region (NCR) and the Counter Magnet Areas (CMAs)
The National Capital Region Planning Board
http://ncrpb.nic.in/docs/incentive.htm
Scheme provides an interest free loan of up to 1% of a project’s cost, if the project adopts certain innovative measures- mostly WES initiatives

From Sumeeta Banerji, United Nations, New Delhi
Micro Entrepreneur Award, Citigroup Foundation
http://www.citigroup.com/citigroup/press/2006/060417c.htm

Award recognizes entrepreneurial skills & best performance to emerge from below poverty line to self-sustaining micro-entrepreneurs

Social Entrepreneurs Award

The Nand and Jeet Khemka Foundation, the Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship and UNDP India
http://www.se2005.com/india/
Recognizes and awards leading social entrepreneurs in India; gives monetary awards and opportunities to engage and strengthen global decision takers from various sectors

World Bank Development Marketplace
Click here to view Page
A competitive grant program that funds innovative, small-scale development projects that deliver results and show potential to be expanded or replicated

Nirmal Gram Puraskar (from Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, c/o Plan International, New Delhi)
http://ddws.nic.in/tsc-nic/html/ngp1.htm
This scheme was initiated as an incentive for fully sanitized and open defecation free Gram Panchayats, Blocks, and Districts and it is based largely on population criteria

Asia Pacific Forum for Environment and Development (APFED) Awards for Good Practices (from Avnish Jolly, Servants of The People Society, Chandigarh)
http://www.iges.or.jp/en/apfed/award/selection/index.html

New international environment award for achievements in promoting socially equitable & sustainable development in the region, also sharing lessons learned & knowledge gained

From Pankaj Kumar S, Resource Person
Rural Pro Poor Innovation Challenge (RPPIC)
http://www.ifad.org/ruralfinance/poverty/innovation.htm
Joint CGAP & IFAD Fund gives awards up to USD 50,000 to microfinance organizations that develop innovative methodologies to deepen rural poverty outreach and impact

Asian Innovation Awards
http://www.feer.com/aia/aia.html
 For individuals & companies with new ideas, methods technologies, or apply existing knowledge in creative, new ways to improve the quality of life or enhance productivity.

National Innovation Foundation
http://nifindia.org/Award.html
Provides institutional support in scouting, spawning, sustaining and scaling-up grassroots green innovations and helping their transition to self supporting activities

European Energy Award
http://www.european-energy-award.org/index.php?id=58
Allows municipalities to identify strengths, weaknesses and potential for improvement & implement effectively energy efficient measures, the success of these efforts is awarded

Stockholm World Water Week
http://www.worldwaterweek.org/prizesandawards/index.asp
Rewards efforts in improving the water environment, bringing water & basic sanitation to those in need, & increasing knowledge of water through groundbreaking research

Recommended Documentation
WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation(JMP) (from Avnish Jolly, Servants of The People Society, Chandigarh)
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/Global5-1.htm
Provides a snapshot of water supply and sanitation worldwide using information available from different sources, focusing on challenges, future needs and prospects in the sector
 
Inventive Villagers: Innovative Approaches to Total Sanitation in Maharashtra (from Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-NetIndia, c/o Plan International, New Delhi)
Downloaded from the Maharashtra Water Supply & Sanitation Department Website, available at:
http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res05070601.pdf (Size: 907 KB)
Outlines two schemes and their impacts, describes five types of innovations i.e. technology, procurement, community mobilization, monitoring and financing

Maharashtra Water Sector Improvement Project (from Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate)
Discusses the State's capacity building for multi-sectoral planning, development, sustainable management of the water resources, irrigation service delivery & productivity

Recommended Contacts

Viraf Mehta, Partners in Change (PIC)
C-75 South Extension Part II, New Delhi –110049. Tel: 91 11 51642348-51; pic@picindia.org
and
Momin Jaan, UNDP
55, Lodhi Estate, P.O. Box 3059, New Delhi 110 003; Tel: 91 11 24628877
Recommended for details regarding the Micro Entrepreneurs Award promoted by Citigroup together with PIC and UNDP

Responses in Full

Digbijoy Bhowmik, Government of India-UNDP Project, 'National Strategy for Urban Poor'; New Delhi

While the following example is restricted only to public sector agencies active in the National Capital Region of India, the model can also be applied to financiers who provide for capital requirements to the private and civil society sectors in the case of WES projects. The National Capital Region Planning Board (a statutory organisation under the Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India) which also serves as a financial institution offers a performance linked incentive scheme for public utilities in the form of reduction of effective interest rates (see http://ncrpb.nic.in/letter.htm). Also, the same institution has a scheme for providing interest free loan of up to 1% of the project cost in case of adoption of certain measure of innovation, mostly in the case of WES initiatives (see http://ncrpb.nic.in/docs/incentive.htm).

Given the penchant for 'hardware' in line-based service utilities and Government Departments dealing with urban development, a scheme like usually tends to leave out IEC activities (including dissemination practices) from within its scope. However, this can also be included by allowing the savings in repayment of interest to be diverted to IEC activities, maybe using a mechanism of awards. In essence, the money that would have gone towards paying interest on loan for a WES project now goes into an award for a civil society organisation that adds value to the infrastructure created by educating the users about it, so that its optimal use can be maximised and maybe greater value-added projects such as participatory models in O&M can be evolved, again further reducing costs for line utilities. At the very least, this can be an example of where the incentive (if monetary) could come from in such an initiative.

Sumeeta Banerji, United Nations, New Delhi

Your question is a brilliant one and perhaps of implication to other sectors as well, where several excellent pilots exist, but the up scaling/ transfer of good practices does not take place. This issue has been of concern to me as well and I have tried to ask project partners why they end a successful project with a project report and don’t invest in the next most important stage i.e. dissemination. However, the reasons cited are always lack of funds to undertake wider dissemination, limited outreach through workshops, lack of innovative ideas on how best to communicate a good practice! I do believe that in the development sector as a whole, especially in a country as vast as India, where there is no dirth of
innovation and pilot initiatives, one simple way of sharing lessons learned on successful projects and failures, is through a mechanism such as Solution Exchange.

Whereas I understand that you are looking for effective reward mechanisms in the urban water and sanitation sector, it may be worthwhile to study closely how awards and recognition of initiatives in other sectors have been institutionalized. Some that come to mind are the ‘Citigroup Micro Enterpreneur Award’, the Social Entrepreneurs Award, and the World Bank Development Marketplace. You may wish to get details on eligibility requirements, application procedures etc. from these organizations as well.
 
The Micro Entrepreneur Award initiated by Citigroup to recognise and honour leadership, entrepreneurial skills and best practices of the individual micro entrepreneur in India has been expanded to include rural and urban areas across the country. This award was instituted by Citigroup, in association with the Global Micro Entrepreneur Award (GMA) program launched by the UN across 38 countries to mark the International Year of Microcredit 2005. In India, Partners in Change (PIC) and UNDP is partnering Citigroup for this award. I have participated as observer in the selection process and know that Citigroup has developed several criteria and detailed procedures including survey questionnaires for making
selections for the award. You may wish to contact Viraf Mehta at PIC or Momin Jaan at UNDP for more details.
 Hope this is useful.

Nafisa Barot, Utthan, Ahmedabad

This is Nafisa Barot from Utthan, which has worked on the issue of access to safe water, sanitation and security from the gender perspective. Our experience strongly suggests that for up scaling we strongly require - to influence policies, programs, institutional reform (sp. at the government level), convergence, partnership and collaboration, information exchange system, capacity building and organizing, monitoring, feed back and redressal mechanism.

Look at the examples of national watershed program and swajaldhara. The above are the lessons learnt from those, who have tried to demonstrate on a scale and then have been involved in policy program formulation as well as on follow up of its implementation. Resources to a large extent could be mobilized only when we are able to monitor the Govt. spending and do effective advocacy for ensuring where from different funds could be mobilized into the pool. The fact is that there has been too much of compartmentalization and division with the fear of losing the priority of the issue. E.g. Total sanitation program (TSC) has separate resources only for sanitation. The logic was to ensure that sanitation do not
fall into the crack while having the cumulative funds along with water. But the result is that this separation has not yielded the desired result because the fact on ground is that sanitation is being implemented without safe and reliable water supply as well as other way round. And hence both have to be implemented together.

Pravah, which is the network in Gujarat working on the issue of safe water and sanitation from the human rights and gender perspective, did face the same problem initially, where its partners wanted resources to implement and did not want to invest the energy into advocacy. Today, many have come around to believe that, the way for up scaling is what one has stated above.

S. Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, c/o Plan International, New Delhi

The reward mechanisms of different types are used in some of the programmes across India with or without special mention to the use of it. When we look at the issue in a different perspective, such supports/rewards are being provided either at the start or end of projects. The urban toilet complexes are one such example, where profits from management of toilets, along with other concessions such as allotment of land for building toilet complexes, free water, electricity and underground drainage connection to the toilets or in some cases, even handing over the toilet complexes on lease by the local bodies encourage SHGs/NGOs/Contractors to operate the services effectively. From the past experiences, it is very clear that these supports are very crucial to the success of the sanitation interventions. While doing so, it is also necessary to ensure that these are not misused by vested
interest. Maintenance of such initiatives through SHGs/youth groups/residents welfare societies representing the community as a whole could lead to sense of ownership and result in plough back of the profits to other infrastructure needs of slums.

Others like, water points owned and managed (including cost recovery for maintenance) by the community sunk with the help of NGOs have helped to provide water supply on a sustainable manner in some of the slums in Bangladesh. However, the successes of such initiatives depend upon the type of support, management mechanism established and the overall policy of the Governments in the sector.
 
Reward initiatives like Sant Gadge Baba Swachchata Abhiyan of Govt. Maharastra and the recent Nirmal Gram Puraskaar of Govt. of India also have significant impact on the sanitation promotion. The rewards provided after successful completion of the initiatives may need a very strong participation drive to involve communities right from the initial stages of the project, which some times difficult to achieve universally.

Therefore, rewards/supports of any form, if targeted in the right manner, can produce very effective results. The support/reward provided at the initial stages of the project, backed up by enabling policies, can be very critical for promoting sanitation and water supply components as much as rewards provided at the successful completion of initiatives. I request that these aspects be also considered while documenting the lessons learnt towards scaling up.

Avnish Jolly, Servants of The People Society, Chandigarh

The following report may be helpful for you on water supply and sanitation in urban areas. This WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) provides a snapshot of water supply and sanitation worldwide at the turn of the millennium using information available from different sources. The link accesses challenges, future needs and prospects in the sector.
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/Globassessment/Global5-1.htm

Further application and selection processes are very difficult. Personal visit and interaction is required. People who are actually working are bad in advocacy and presentation. Most of them are do not understand the value of documentation. You may find this useful:  APFED Awards for Good Practices http://www.iges.or.jp/en/apfed/award/selection/index.html

A. Gurunathan, Dhan Foundation, Madurai

Either World Bank's 'Water and Sanitation journal' or ADB's 'Urban case studies in India', if I rightly remember documented successful Urban Project implemented by community organizations in India during 1999-2000. The success stories of SPMS (Sree Padmavathy Mahila Abhividhya Sangham) based in Tirupathi is replicable.

Hirenkumar Rajendrabhai Patel, PRAVAH, Ahmedabad

In Gujarat there is one organization Charkha which promotes developmental news in News Paper. For that they implement various program, they collect various case studies from the developmental worker and publish it in regional news papers with the name of developmental worker. This way the developmental worker will get motivated to write more about the good practices and civil society become aware about the various developmental work. Another program implemented is the fellowship program in which they assign different topics and individual have to write real field level experience on given topic. In this process main responsibility of Charkha is media linkages and publishing books on case studies.

Arunabha Majumder, All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, Kolkata

West Bengal Pollution Control Board has initiated programme to select Urban Local Bodies (Municipalities) who are working for protection of environment, betterment of environmental condition, environmental awareness generation, environmental cleanliness, development of greenaries and plantation etc, for Award of Excellence . The award was given in 2004 and 2005. It has generated a good competitive spirit amongst ULBs. WBPCB also selects Industries and NGOs for award of Excellence every year.

Debasish De, Delhi Minorities Commission, Government of NCT Delhi, New Delhi

I have worked with the community for seven years and what I have found, motivation and monitoring are two major aspects of community development work. I agree with the method of reward mechanism. But, I have seen many examples of greed for the rewards which has hampered the dedication for developmental work. In TSC programme, the youth clubs in East Midnapore, West Bengal were given the responsibilities to implement. There was internal reward system to promote the programme in the grassroots level. What they did, they installed low cost latrines in many households, whether it is necessary or not. Some well-performed youth clubs have received the rewards too. Therefore, after sometime, some households stopped using the latrines, deserting it. They went back to their original practice of defecation on the fields, roadside areas, banks of the canals etc. There was a huge loss of money.

Again, in Bankura, West Bengal under Indira Priyadarshini Brikhshamitra award, some CBOs have started plantation programmes in the arid area of Bankura, locally called Tanr. The area was far away from the village. So we intervened into this. 100 hectare of arid land was taken under plantation programme. There was no community involvement, no motivation and no monitoring. At the end of winter the plants dried up and there was no method adopted for the watering. Community would have helped in this work but they too were not involved. And finally most of the plants died due to severe water demand.  

Therefore, it is necessary to involve the community while you are working with the community and first motivate them for adopting the methods and then start your work. Later, monitor the activities continuously and the reward mechanism. Then one can ensure the meaningful implementation of the developmental process in the grassroots level.

Jyotsna Bapat, Independent Consultant, New Delhi

I am aware of the USAID Fire project in Agra where the reward mechanism was very simple and participatory. The community toilets and bathing areas were planned for the slums in the neighborhood of various non prominent historic monuments of the city, with the long term objective of promoting tourism to these monuments and training the local community to become guides for he tourists.

The first step was to environmentally clean up these slum neighborhoods. Towards this end the community toilets bathing and washing areas were to be created. The community was involved in the site location as well as the micro design of the community toilets. The design involved a bathing platform with a small shelf inside the bathing space and a hook or two on the wall to hang clothes. It is these minute details in the interior design of the bathing areas and the community toilets, that worked as a reward for the community members and an incentive for the community members to continue to using the toilets and the bathing and washing areas of the communal toilets.  Thus the non monetary compensation in respect for their opinion and wishes in the design of the toilets that worked very effectively as a regard for the community and ensured sustained use of the created assets.

Sharadbala Joshi, Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University, UK

Thank you for your observations and suggestions. I add a few comments for further interactions, sharing of experiences and comments.

a) My study of rewards (in the form of awards) in the various sectors indicates that since the seventies, recognition through awards, especially for outcomes through partnerships and/or participation, has become one of the means for identifying interventions that can be adapted in or transferred to similar situations.  I would categorise the very good examples suggested by Sumeeta Banerji and Ramesh Sakhtival as 'awards that recognise the achievement of a desired goal of the award giver (in the cause of development)' and a move away from supporting interventions for achieving specific goals. In the examples cited, the recognition is given by leaders at well-publicised ceremonies. The recipients therefore get the financial incentives of an award as well as public recognition and related social-prestige and pride that have long-term implications. Such recognition is more attractive because it abstains from putting up an individual leader or facilitator on a pedestal for outcomes that would not have been possible without the cooperation and participation of other stakeholders. It may also contribute to better operation and management of assets created.

b) These cases also reiterate the factors identified by Nafisa Barot for accelerating up scaling of good practices in ways where the emphasis is on ownership and sustainability of interventions rather than on creation of physical infrastructure. Nafisa, from my observations in urban areas, I believe that even with the enabling environment (in terms of policies, institutional reforms and functioning, convergence mechanisms), facilitators would play a very important role in organising for monitoring and information exchange, and in building partnerships and capacities.

I suggest some other possible reasons why few NGOs, individuals and other organisations (who have made significant difference in their areas of work) submit applications or get nominated for awards for members consideration:

• Information about awards is not available or
• Application process requires too much investment of time and resources
• Information required in applications requires additional effort for reformatting information about interventions
• Many stakeholders are involved in an intervention and the recognition is for individuals
• The award process is perceived as being biased and politicised
• 'Prize money' is too little

Many thanks to all who contributed to this query!

 If you have further information to share on this topic, please send it to Solution Exchange for WES-Net at se-wes@solutionexchange-un.net.in with the subject heading “Re: [se-wes] Query: Reward mechanisms promoting successful urban WES projects, from WEDC, UK (Experiences). Additional Response.”

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Compiled by Pankaj Kumar S., Resource Person and Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate, 13 December 2006
 
From Kanishk Negi, Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development (SPWD), Udaipur, Rajasthan
Posted: 29 September 2006
 
I work in the western arid zone of India with the Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development (SPWD) on issues related to water, forestry and land.  Members are aware that an increasingly large number of villages and habitations now suffer from Fluoride contamination. Fluorosis causes deterioration of bones and joints, thereby increasing medical expenditure and in some areas like Rajasthan, has prevented people from marrying their daughters in a village where drinking water is contaminated.
 
The root cause of fluoride contamination is firstly, using water from deeper aquifers and secondly, underground geology (availability of rocks rich in fluoride content) with no relation to the aquifer level. The current practice to deal with fluorosis involves diversion of cleaner surface water from lesser-affected regions to more affected ones. However, this is not a long-term solution and may cause conflicts as scarcity increases.
 
In order to find a sustainable solution for this problem, SPWD is developing a programme following the approach of increasing ground water levels to dilute the concentration of fluoride, complemented by reducing the amount of water extraction. This would involve artificial recharge of ground water, limiting the draft, harvesting alternate sources like rainwater harvesting and enhancing the immune system of the people.
 
In the above background, I request members to share their experience on the following:

• Information on centers involved in testing blood serum and urine samples for fluoride concentration, preferably near Rajasthan.
• Low cost/indigenous techniques for treating fluoride-contaminated water, keeping in mind that limited maintenance is possible in rural areas.
• Experiences of other NGOs, government or donors in resolving the fluoride contamination issue in other parts of India.
• Information on resource agencies to provide technical, financial and strategic support to upscale the learnings of our fluoride contamination programme.

Responses received with thanks from:

1. V. Kurian Baby, SEUF, Kerala
2. K. A. S. Mani, APFAMGS, Hyderabad
3. D. Chandrasekharam, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Mumbai
4. Seema Raghunathan, NATCO Trust, Hyderabad
5. R. Srikanth, WaterAid India, New Delhi
6. K. Kiran Kumar, SKG Sangha, Kolar, Karnataka
7. Meghna Das, Independent Consultant, UK
8. A. K. Susheela, Fluorosis Research and Rural Development Foundation, New Delhi
9.  Paul Deverill, UNICEF India, New Delhi
10. N. Ramachandran, Periyar PURA, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
11. Terry Thomas, Participatory Learning and Action Network (PLANET Kerala), Thiruvananthapuram
12. Ajit Sheshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi
13. T.S. Krishnan Iyer, Development Oriented Operations, Research and Surveys, Noida
14. U. V. Sambhu Prasad, Lloyds and Lous Burgers Inc., Varani, Andhra Pradesh
15. S. Vishwanath, Rainwater Club, Bangalore
 
Further contributions are welcome!

Summary of Responses
 
Contamination of drinking water with excess fluoride consequent fluorosis is a massive problem affecting increasingly large populations in Rajasthan and other states of India, even more widespread than the arsenic problem. In this context, the query on treatment measures of fluoride contaminated water and testing its impact on human body evoked a wide range of responses and suggestions.
 
The major reason for such contamination, felt members, was the presence of flouride contributing zones and aquifers, which need to be delineated for effective mitigation. Among the various methods of fluoride mitigation, members mentioned theNalgonda technique (using alum, lime and bleaching powder to precipitate fluoride salts from water) as one of the earliest defluoriding techniques. However, they reported that attempts to get panchayats to take up fluoride mitigation in Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh and other parts of the country have not provided desired results due to inadequate technical and financial capacity of panchayats, incomplete disposajl of hazardous wastes, and lack of demand from
stakeholders. Nevertheless, a de-fluoridisation Corporate Social Responsibility project in Nalgonda cited by members appeared to be quite successful in providing safe drinking water to village people at a low cost.
 
Respondents report that the use of activated alumina filters has been quite successful in achieving a household level of outreach at low costs. They also cited the UNICEF-promoted three-tier filter as a good example. The filter calls for adding an activated alumina chamber to a normal two-chamber candle filter. However, activated alumina need to regeneration every three months. This implies recurring costs (about Rs. 30 for 3 kg) and skilled labor to test the filtered water and to change degenerated filters. Participants suggested that the cost of regeneration of alumina be subsidized in some districts, and the capacity of self-help groups and village entrepreneurs be enhanced to carry out testing and changing of filters.
 
In addition to these conventional techniques, the group also mentioned other potential methods for de-fluoridification such as Phyto-remediation – using specific plants like water hyacinth to leach away contaminants from water, and accentuated the need for screening indigenous plant species for this purpose.  Respondents also pointed out that in fluoride-affected areas, promotion of alternative sources of safe drinking water such as roof water harvesting could be done. In this regard, they shared examples from Kolar, Karnataka, the Karnataka Government’s roof water harvesting programme, and another programme in Tamil Nadu. Other potential methods for getting pure drinking water mentioned included
supporting traditional water harvesting systems such as tankas in Rajasthan and Solar Distillation.
 
Members discussed the efficacy of groundwater recharge in decreasing the concentration of fluoride. On one hand, they felt that since extraction from deeper aquifers was the reason why concentration levels of fluoride went up, recharging aquifers could be one of the ways of dealing with excess fluoride. They also thought that in the absence of mapping of fluoride contributing zones, recharge may not yield the desired results; noting that recharge may take a long time to show conclusive results, and still not make any significant difference in severely water scarce regions, like Rajasthan.
 
Additionally, respondents stressed the need to develop an inter-sectoral approach to tackle the issue of fluoride. Firstly, surveillance on the incidence of contamination needs to be stepped up through regular testing of water samples. In this regard, members felt that ion-specific electrodes and photometers gave more accurate results than titration and other testing methods. They also suggested fully involving all relevant stakeholders such as schools, health authorities and local authorities in the mitigation efforts. Moreover, participants stressed the importance of targeting vulnerable groups such as children, pregnant and lactating mothers. Health officials also need to be trained to recognize symptoms of fluorosis such as staining and pitting of teeth, joint pains, etc. All fluoride mitigation interventions need to be regularly monitoring for impact, felt members.
 
Members mentioned three testing centres for testing blood and urine samples, All India Institute for Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Fluorosis Research and Rural Development Foundation, New Delhi, and the Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbaithe rider being that these samples be brought in plastic bottles to prevent glass containers from distorting the fluoride content. In addition, at AIIMS, one needs to register as an Out Patient Department patient and the test is done if the doctor recommends it, while there is no such restriction in the other two centres.

 Notwithstanding the above focus on fluoride intake through drinking water, members cautioned that in some districts as much as 58 to 64% of total fluoride intake could happen through contaminated food. Calculation of fluoride ingestion therefore needs to account for both routes- food and water. Additionally, consumption of local foods rich in calcium such as Chakoda (Cassia Toria) was a good way of mitigating impact of fluorosis, respondents suggested.
 
In conclusion, members were not very sanguine about the efficacy of groundwater recharge on mitigating fluoride; they emphasized collection and storage of rainwater as a safe alternative for drinking water. Respondents proposed an inter-sectoral strategy for addressing fluoride mitigation through more sensitive health services, encouraging calcium-rich foods, and chemical treatment of contaminated water and better vigilance. These could be the first steps towards a long-term and sustainable response to the fluoride problem.
 
Comparative Experiences
 
Andhra Pradesh
 
Defluoridation Project as part of CSR (from Seema Raghunathan, NATCO Trust, Hyderabad)
As part of its social commitment, NATCO Trust through its Corporate Social Responsibility project installed deflouriding units in remote villages of Nalgonda District.  The units work on cost basis and decontaminated water costs 20 paisa per liter. Additionally the Trust installed a UV ray filter at the government institution Gurukul and constructed safe water tanks for schoolchildren.
 
Karnataka

Locally Constructed Alternate Rainwater Based Drinking Systems (from S. Vishwanath, Rainwater Club, Bangalore)
The Karnataka Government is trying an alternative water collection system in 1,000 villages.  A small tank (1,500 liters to 2,000 liters) built using locally available materials and skills, collects rainwater during the rainy season and acts as storage, to provide fluoride-free water for most of the year (20 liters/family/day). Additionally the government is developing a small sand filter to pre-filter water before storage and trying SODIS with chlorine tablets for bacterial disinfection.

 Rainwater Based Drinking Systems Using Slow Sand Filters (from K. Kiran Kumar, SKG Sangha, Kolar, Karnataka)
As part of its social activity SKG Sangha installed 16 rainwater based drinking systems at government schools in Bagalkot district. The systems have slow sand bed filters with activated carbon in the form of wood charcoal and a sealed storage tank in brick masonry with capacities of 1,500 to 3,000 liters. The savings in electricity charges to pump ground water will recover the cost of the units within two years and provide clean potable water to fluoride-affected areas.
 
Tamil Nadu
 
Water Purification Plant under Periyar PURA (from N. Ramachandran, Periyar PURA, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu)
The Periyar College adopted 65 villages near the college under the Periyar PURA scheme. Since the drinking water that people get from deep bore well is not potable, the Institute made efforts to find alternate options and succeeded in getting a water purification plant from US based Pure O Tech Company, installed in Muthuveerakandian Patti, Thanjavur taluk. This plant brings all water within safe parameters, including fluoride, thus providing the village people purified water.
 
Related Resources
 
Recommended Organizations
 
From V. Kurian Baby, SEUF, Kerala
 
Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM)
http://rural.nic.in/rgndw.htm
For details and experiences of the sub-mission projects under the RGNDWM particularly aimed at drinking water quality and supply with emphasis on de-fluoridation experiments
 
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), Jaipur (from V. Kurian Baby, SEUF, Kerala and R. Srikanth, WaterAid India, New Delhi)
B-9 Bhawani Singh Lane, C-Scheme, Opposite Nehru Sahkar Bhawan, Jaipur 302 001, Rajasthan; Tel.: 91-141-2382694; Fax: 91-141-2382910; jaipur@unicef.org
To obtain feedback on the domestic de-fluoridation experiments tried out in Rajasthan with UNICEF support and for details on the activated alumina filter
 
Development Alternatives (DA), New Delhi (from Meghna Das, Independent Consultant, UK)
111/9-Z, Kishangarh, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110070; Tel.: 91-11-26134103, 26890380; Fax: 91-11-26130817; tara@devalt.org; http://www.devalt.org/active.htm
Evaluates performance of domestic and community level defluoridation techniques & engaging in capacity building of PHED officials and NGOs in Rajasthan & Andhra Pradesh
 
From A. K. Susheela, Fluorosis Research and Rural Development Foundation, New Delhi
All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi
Hospital involved in testing blood serum & urine samples for fluoride wherein one needs to be an OPD patient and if the test is required, it is done
 
Fluorosis Research and Rural Development Foundation
Contact Prof. (Dr) A. K. Susheela; susheela@bol.net.in
http://education.vsnl.com/fluorosis/foundation.html
Centre for testing blood serum and urine samples for fluoride wherein anyone referred to the foundation can undertake tests by providing samples in plastic vials/bottles
 
Arghyam, Bangalore (from S. Vishwanath, Rainwater Club, Bangalore)
2nd Floor, 840, 5th Main (Above Aafreen’s Salon), Indiranagar 1st stage, Bangalore 560038; Tel.: 91-80-25210378; Fax: 91-80-25252003; info@arghyam.org;
http://www.indiawaterportal.org/arghyam/waterquality.htm
Provides financial assistance of fluoride mitigation programs and information on Sachetna Plus, Govt. of Karnataka Project funded by Arghyam and implemented by BIRD-K
 
Centre for Environmental Science & Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai (from D. Chandrasekharam)
Mumbai 400076; Tel.: 91-22-25767851; Fax: 91-22-25786530
Includes laboratories designed for environmental engineering research with a full range of research equipment used for environmental testing and analysis of air and water
 
Recommended Contact and Expert

Dipak Roy, UNICEF, Jaipur (from Paul Deverill, UNICEF India, New Delhi)
DRoy@unicef.org
Recommended for more specific advice on fluoride contamination status and fluoride mitigation programs of Rajasthan
 
Recommended Documentation

A Household Defluorodation Technique (from V. Kurian Baby, SEUF, Kerala)
C. Banuchandra and P. Selvapathy; TWAD Technical Newsletter; August 2005
http://www.twadboard.com/photos/7.pdf (Size: 765.3 KB)
Presents the findings of investigation on the use of alum, lime (Nalgonda technique) and activated alumina for household level defluoridation.
 
Solar Desalination (from Terry Thomas, Participatory Learning and Action Network (PLANET Kerala), Thiruvananthapuram)
PLANET Kerala
http://www.planetkerala.org/downloads/SolarDistillation.pdf (Size: 768.34 MB)
Details Solar Desalination as a compact and point of use treatment for chemical, physical and biological contaminants in drinking water citing its experience in Kerala
 
Water quality in Sustainable Water Management (from K. S. Murali, UNDP, New Delhi)*
Sudhakar M. Rao and P. Mamatha; Current Science, Vol. 87, No. 7; October 10, 2004
http://eprints.iisc.ernet.in/archive/00002390/01/water_quality.pdf (Size: 161.1 KB)
Analyses water pollution by point and diffuse sources and introduces a new method of treating fluoride contamination using magnesium oxide, developed at IISc, Bangalore.
 
*Offline Contribution

From Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate
 
Fluorosis Management Programme in India
A. K. Susheela
http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/nov25/articles13.htm
Focuses on awareness generation, opting technology for fluoride removal/strategy, and emphasizes importance of antioxidant-rich diet to minimize fluoride effects
 
Common Treatment Techniques
Excel Water Technologies Inc.
Click here to view link
Provides details on a number of techniques such as Activated Alumina, Anionic Exchange, Reverse Osmosis which enable the removal of fluoride amongst other contaminants
 
Fluoride Detection Kit for Groundwater, A Field-Kit for Quick Estimation of Fluoride in Ground-Water
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai
http://www.barc.ernet.in/webpages/technologies/fdk/fdk_br.html
Details FDK as a simple, user-friendly and highly cost effective kit for estimation of fluoride in groundwater in comparison with currently available techniques.
 
Mobile Drinking Water Treatment/Disaster Management Unit
Update; Ion Exchange India, No. 1; August 2003
http://www.ionindia.com/pdf/water_tech/updates/update_august%2003.pdf (Size: 435.81 KB)
Provides information on water and waste water treatment technologies particularly the mobile drinking water treatment unit for rural communities
 
Fluoride Contamination in Water Highest in Dharmapuri
S. Prasad; The Hindu; May 24 2004
http://www.healthlibrary.com/news/2004/24-29-may04/news6.html
Article finds that Dharmapuri due to Failure to conserve rainwater and excessive depletion of groundwater has a high concentration of endemic fluoride
 
Defluoridation of Water Using Inexpensive Adsorbents
A. V. Jamode, V. S. Sapkal and V. S. Jamode; Journal of Indian Institute of Science; Sep–Oct 2004
http://journal.library.iisc.ernet.in/vol200405/paper4/jamode.pdf (Size:74  KB)
Study assesses the suitability of inexpensive leaf adsorbents to effectively remediate fluoride-contaminated water.
 
The Dark Zone

Nidhi Jamwal and D. B. Manisha; Down to Earth
Reports the extent of the problem and enormity of human tragedy due to fluoride and arsenic contamination in groundwater
 
Responses in Full
 
V. Kurian Baby, SEUF, Kerala
 
Negi’s approach and strategy is the most feasible route for fluoride treatment. The best way to answer water quality is to address it at source, which is cost effective and sustainable. If my understanding is correct, we are yet to perfect a simple, community friendly and cost effective system for fluoride treatment. The oft suggested ‘Nalgonda technique’ has encountered serious problems of waste disposal and effective maintenance. In 2001, when I visited Nalgonda (Andhra Pradesh), almost every treatment plant, supposed to have been maintained by the PRIs, are found to be defunct.
 
In Nalgonda, my inference is that the system failed on account of the following; (a) responsibility assigned to PRIs, which are not empowered and technically and financially equipped for the purpose (Water Boards in India are happy to devolve the most difficult part of their service like rehabilitation of defunct schemes, quality assurance, aquifer recharge etc., to PRIs while resisting to devolve the production and investment functions); (b) treatment and disposal of hazardous waste system not perfected and the treatment plants not maintained/managed properly; and (c) the demand for treatment has not been adequately generated across the stakeholders. Many variants to the Nalgonda technique are being practiced across the country, with varying degree of success and the main determinants are the soft elements.
 
We have generally failed not mainly in terms of technology, but in terms of institutions, management, and generation of demand.  I would request Negi to kindly get in touch with the UNICEF team in Jaipur for feedback on the domestic de-fluoridation experiments tried out in Rajasthan with UNICEF support and the PHED on their experiences on the sub-mission projects under RGNDWM.
 
I was always thinking in terms of reviving the traditional ‘tanka system’ for drinking water in rural Rajasthan, which could address both quantity and quality (fluoride) issues at a stroke to a large extent, and is really cost effective.
 
K. A. S. Mani, APFAMGS, Hyderabad
 
The critical task in reducing the fluoride in the affected areas is to first get a good understanding of the depth and extent of fluoride rich aquifers. To believe that deeper aquifer (an ambiguous statement) are fluoride rich is highly erroneous. Once the fluoride contributing zones are delineated, their source and recharge zones need to be identified.
 
Only after having a good understanding of the fluoride rich aquifer and recharge zone should the scope for dilution through induced recharge be attempted. Alternatively, modified well design involving blanking of fluoride rich zones while tapping the less or no fluoride aquifer zones might be an option that can work in areas with multiple aquifers.
 
D. Chandrasekharam, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Mumbai
 
Considerable work on this problem has been carried out in parts of Rajasthan and other regions of India. The number of people affected by Fluorosis is much greater than the number of people affected by arsenic problem in West Bengal.  This problem has been addressed by several workers. We experimented to solve this problem using locally available vegetables in certain parts of Karnataka. The results were encouraging and further work in this direction is being carried out by my students.  We can work out a method to work out a programme of assistance, if you are interested.

Testing facilities are also available with us (but not in Rajasthan). In case you need further assistance, contact us. Alternately, you can contact University of Rajasthan at Jaipur. Perhaps they may be in a position to help you.
 
Seema Raghunathan, NATCO Trust, Hyderabad
 
I am Seema, working for a corporate trust (NATCO Trust) as part of a Corporate Social Responsibility project. As part of our social commitment, we have installed deflouriding units in remote villages of Nalgonda District.  The units work on cost basis and decontaminated water costs 20 paise per liter. For schoolchildren, we have installed a UV ray filter at the government institution Gurukul. We have also constructed safe water tanks for schoolchildren and sanitation facilities for children at school level.
 
R. Srikanth, WaterAid India, New Delhi
 
Fluoride contamination can be tackled by using household activated alumina filter. This is promoted by various agencies including UNICEF. The major challenge that remains to be addressed is capacity development of community on the use of this filter including regular monitoring of filtered water, and regeneration of activated alumina. This requires dedicated and trained persons to take charge of these software components; otherwise, this intervention will fail to address this core issue. Concept of entrepreneurship within self-help groups can be tried in this area where persons trained in the software of defluoridation can do the job of recharging, regeneration the filter after making assessment of filter on
periodic basis at a nominal cost.  Secondly, looking for alternate sources of ground water with less fluoride is effective.

Thirdly, fluoride contamination can also be addressed by promoting foods that are rich in calcium and available locally. These are the alternative measures WaterAid India is adopting in project areas where fluoride is the major contaminant including the worst affected areas of Palamau in Jharkand.  However, I am skeptical with regard to defluoridation using groundwater recharge, which may take a long time to show any conclusive result and may still not lead to in a drastic dilution in water stressed areas like Rajasthan.
 
K. Kiran Kumar, SKG Sangha, Kolar, Karnataka
 
This is an NGO working from Kolar, Karnataka state.  As a part of our social activity we have installed 16 rain water based drinking systems with capacities ranging from 1500 to 3000 liters at government schools in Bagalkot district of Karnataka State. The savings in electricity charges to pump ground water would recover the cost of the unit within 2 years.
These rain water based drinking water systems have slow sand bed filters with activated carbon in the form of wood charcoal and a sealed storage tank with the above capacities in brick masonary.  I feel that this method is a sustainable solution to provide clean potable water to fluoride affected areas.
 
Meghna Das, Independent Consultant, UK
 
I am Meghna Das, presently based in UK but I had been working on fluoride related issues in Development Alternatives (DA),New Delhi. We have been involved in the capacity building of PHED officials and NGOs in Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh under a project funded by UNICEF. Also we have been responsible for evaluating the performance of both domestic and community level defluoridation techniques (mainly activated alumina). If you are interested in finding more about the reports and the techniques, you could get in touch with my colleagues at DA or I would be pleased to respond to more queries.

A. K. Susheela, Fluorosis Research and Rural Development Foundation, New Delhi
 
The information for Centres involved in testing blood serum and urine samples for fluoride are only two in the whole country.

• AIIMS, New Delhi, one needs to be an OPD patient and if the test is required it is done
• Fluorosis Research and Rural Development Foundation, New Delhi

Tests are done for anyone referred to the Foundation from anywhere in the country. Samples need to be brought in plastic vials/bottles.

Paul Deverill, UNICEF India, New Delhi

It is good to see that there is still quite a bit of interest about fluoride in drinking water. I would like to use the opportunity to share a few lessons that UNICEF has learnt over the last few years in this respect, particularly in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.

I think that we need to recognize that the problem we are dealing with is fluorosis, not just excess fluoride in drinking water. Studies recently undertaken by UNICEF Bhopal, and Dr. Chakma and his team from the Regional Medical Research Centre for tribals (ICMR) in Jabalpur indicate that 58 to 64% of fluoride consumed in survey areas in Jhabua District is ingested as food. The worst culprits in this respect were cereals and pulses such as red gram. Earlier studies undertaken by ICMR in Mandla, Madhya Pradesh, had also concluded that those most severely affected by fluorosis were markedly deficient in calcium and micro-nutrients.

Interventions designed to reduce fluoride should be informed by such studies, and include diet and nutrition interventions. In MP, the promotion of Chakoda (Cassia tora), which is rich in calcium, has helped mitigate the disease. It should be said that Chakoda was already used by tribals - but its significance in mitigating fluorosis was not appreciated. When designing fluorosis control measures, we also need to ensure we know how effective they are. This implies the need for surveillance. Screening for dental fluorosis in schools is an effective surveillance measure, provided those carrying out the inspection can identify the dental staining and pitting associated with fluorosis. It is astonishing and depressing that a whole generation after fluorosis was first diagnosed, many health officials and health works in areas where this is a problem are unable to diagnose the disease.

To be effective and sustainable, interventions must be intersectoral, involving health centres, schools, Anganwadis, water service providers and local government. Specific interventions can be focused on vulnerable groups within a population - such as pregnant and lactating mothers. Monitoring impact of interventions is essential - and a key role for health authorities. Only then will we be able to arrest the disease.

In this context, we can look at water quality. Here I have two points. Firstly, screening water supplies should be carried out with an ion-specific electrode or photometer, not a semi-quantitative test kit. Laboratory titration methods are better than field test kits but the process takes too long given the number of tests required. Field test kits should be used in the context of determining whether a fluoride removal filter is working or not (see below). Almost 200 ion meters were provided by UNICEF and WHO to Government departments over the last ten years - but how many are still functional and in use?

Secondly, when designing water quality interventions, we need to consult users and take into account their wishes and demand. The most simple and most sustainable interventions may include rain water harvesting and dilution and sanitary wells. Multi-village water supplies are expensive to build and maintain, and are vulnerable to faecal contamination if the supply is interrupted by power cuts. As in the case on Anantapur, we must be sure that the water source can meet projected water demand. But, if well designed and supported with extensive capacity building, piped water supplies may provide a longer term solution.

Fluoride removal, by comparison, may be even more difficult to sustain. UNICEF and others have developed domestic systems using activated alumina. These work in the lab. However, in the field, domestic filters must be supported with a network of regeneration centres. In addition, all users must be informed (and sufficiently motivated) to ensure that their filters are "re-activated" every three months or so. The costs of regeneration are also quite high - typically 30 rupees for 3 kg of activated alumina. The poorest families may be willing to contribute something, but may need a subsidy to afford this. All these points must be taken into account when designing a filter-based intervention. Otherwise there is a significant risk that we end up distributing filters which are not going to be used.

For more specific advice on Rajasthan (requested by Kanish Negi), please contact Dipak Roy, PO WES in UNICEF Jaipur: DRoy@unicef.org

N. Ramachandran, Periyar PURA, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu

We are thankful for the information given on Solution Exchange to remove Fluoride contamination. In this connection, we would like to furnish our experience in supplying pure drinking water to three villages in Thanjavur district, Tamilnadu where our institution is located. Our institution, Periyar Maniammai College of Technology for Women, has taken up the scheme Periyar PURA inaugurated by His Excellency the President of India Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam. We have adopted 65 villages near our college under Periyar PURA scheme and are working towards achieving:

• Physical connectivity
• Electronic connectivity
• Knowledge connectivity
• Economic connectivity

The drinking water that people get from the deep bore well is not potable. However, people are forced to consume it as there is no other option. Keeping this in mind, our Institute made efforts and succeeding in getting a water purification plant from Pure O Tech, a US based company. This plant was installed in Muthuveerakandian Patti of Thanjavur taluk and was dedicated to the village people by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam on 24.09.06. This plant purifies water and brings all parameters including fluoride well within permissible limits providing people of these villages purified water.

Terry Thomas, Participatory Learning and Action Network (PLANET Kerala), Thiruvananthapuram

Referring to fluoride contamination, I am highlighting two aspects for consideration - firstly a biological option and, secondly a physical option. Phytoremediation- There are many traditional processes of using plants to improve water quality. Many plants were scientifically validated regarding the unique capability of the roots to absorb excess contaminants from soil/ aquifer and maintain water quality under control. Many indigenous plants absorb the commonly found excess nitrates, phosphates, chlorides from the soil. A combination of these plants can be used to provide a practical option/s for controlling water quality, especially in shallow homestead water ponds. Excess Fluoride can also possibly be treated using locally available plants with such properties, either naturally or through constructed phytoremediation systems. However, more inputs are needed in screening local plant species with these properties we have not ventured into this area yet. In the long run, it can offer environmentally sustainable options with multiple values.

Solar Distillation (not SODIS) units are now become compact and affordable. They can treat excess Fluoride along with other excess salts and biological contamination, producing fresh water. Solar Distillation is the only technology that addresses both biological and chemical contamination. Further information may be found at the following
link: http://www.planetkerala.org/downloads/SolarDistillation.pdf

Hope this adds some value to the WES professionals.

Ajit Sheshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi

We endorse fully the potential of plants - phytoremediation process to clean up domestic wastewater from the experiences of 2 projects in Delhi. Definitely, it would work to process raw water from sub-soil or from ponds etc. Constructed wetlands have a lot of scope. Please feel free to write in for further discussions on these aspects.

T. S. Krishnan Iyer, Development Oriented Operations, Research and Surveys, Noida

I find the suggestions of Shri Terry most valuable, as they are nature-oriented therapies. He mentions that we have not ventured in the field of identifying plants that could absorb excessive harmful substances from soil/water. Could we take steps to collect more information on this aspect? Does anyone know persons or institutions researching or initiating research on this aspect?

U. V. Sambhu Prasad, Lloyds and Lous Burgers Inc., Varani, Andhra Pradesh

I think most of you are aware of the three-tier household water filtration kit that is being promoted by UNICEF. It is like any other domestic candle water filter with an additional middle chamber having a bag of activated Alumina. This granular chemical looks like sugar (more like sooji - farina). The Fluoride level of the output water is comparable to WHO standards for consumption. However, the chemical needs to be thoroughly cleaned once every two to three months.

As far as plants are concerned, water hyacinth, though an IAS (Invasive Alien Species-IUCN) has been used in Mudiali experiment near Calcutta to absorb Arsenic and other trace metals. It involves multi channel purification. I am not certain if it works for Flouride or not. The best person to advice on this account would be Dr. Dhrubajoti Ghosh, now with CESS in Calcutta. He was instrumental in using water hyacinth for decontamination and for propagation of the same through CBOs.

S. Vishwanath, Rainwater Club, Bangalore

I wish to inform members that the government of Karnataka is trying out an alternative in a 1000 villages with the following rooftop rainwater harvesting ideas:

• Make a small tank of about 1500 litres to 2000 litres built from locally available materials and local skills. This tank collects rainwater during the rainy season.
• The tank, if used properly, can provide fluoride-free water for most of the year (and at least for 6 months) at the rate of 20 litres per family per day for drinking and cooking.
• It can also be used as a tank to store alternate water from other sources during the non rainy season.
• The whole system costs about Rs 5000 /- per unit including the pipes, the filter and the tank.
• A small sand filter has been developed to pre filter the water before storage. This consists of passing the rainwater through 3 inches of sand kept in aluminum bowl or funnel.
• SODIS is being tried along with chlorine tablets for bacterial disinfection if the Hydrogen Sulphide strip test shows bacterial contamination.

The use of harvested water has increased. However, a great deal of interaction is needed before people start using rainwater for drinking (unlike say in Rajasthan or Gujarat where rainwater from rooftops have traditionally been used for drinking).

NGO's like BIRD-K are also adopting this method along with dilution through artificial recharge to lower fluoride levels in groundwater.

For some financial assistance for these kinds of work you may look at www.arghyam.org for support

Many thanks to all who contributed to this query!

If you have further information to share on this topic, please send it to Solution Exchange for WES-Net at se-wes@solutionexchange-un.net.in with the subject heading “Re: [se-wes] Query: Removing Fluoride Contamination, from SPWD, Udaipur (Experiences) Additional Reply.”

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Compiled by Pankaj Kumar, Resource Person; additional research provided by Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate 27 June 2006
Original Query: Vijaya Saradhi Atluri, Byrraju Foundation, Hyderabad
Posted: 20 April 2006

Byrraju Foundation is a non-profit organization dedicated to bringing about a tangible improvement in the quality of lives of the rural underprivileged.  We are currently working in 150 villages across five districts of Andhra Pradesh, India and impact nearly 1 million rural lives.  Our programmes include a water treatment plant, constructed by contribution from NRI and 50% by contribution from foundation. Plastic cans are used to deliver water and sold at 1.50 to 2 RS. Per liter and enough is recovered to pay for O and M cost of the plant.
 
Our sanitation program aims to usher in provision of a self-owned, manageable sanitation facility to every family in the below poverty line (BPL) Category. A total of 30,000 individual sanitary latrines are already constructed with 95% usage. Additionally 40,000 Individual Sanitary Latrines are being constructed to achieve 100% coverage in 150 villages with properly constructed sanitation facilities.

I would be grateful, if members of the community can share with me
∙ Known technological options available to treat sullage in rural areas, particularly where the soil is black cotton?
∙ What will be the per unit cost of treating this sullage

Responses received with thanks from:
1. Bhawna Vajpai, Water and Sanitation Consultant, New Delhi
2. Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi
3. N.V.V. Raghava, World Bank, New Delhi
4. D.M. Mohan, Independent consultant, Secunderabad
5. Raj Kumar Daw, UNICEF, New Delhi (Response 1; Response 2)
 
*During the time period that this query was discussed, responses were moderated by Jyotsna Bapat, Former Resource Person Further contributions are welcome!

Summary of Responses

Members’ responded to the query seeking technological options to treat sullage, by giving several choices for rural communities and specifically for black cotton soil. They highlighted contextual specifications when selecting an appropriate sullage treatment design and outlined suitable technology types. Respondents noted that selecting an inappropriate technology, a faulty design and not considering the type of soil are some of the key reasons why toilets in rural areas are not used or are non-functional. The contextual situation requires consideration when deciding on the best form of treatment. For example, members suggested ‘Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS),’ which can treat various kinds of wastewater.

Selecting a Type of Toilet

Members mentioned several types of toilets that can treat sullage. The various on site and off site toilets options listed by members included- leach pit toilets, Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) toilets and septic tanks. They also brought up alternative sanitation technologies like ecological sanitation and community treatment systems (i.e. wet composting). However, members cautioned that whatever technology is chosen, the selection criteria needs to take into account the level of the water table, construction costs (i.e. materials, availability of skilled labor during construction, etc.) and the long-term maintenance options and costs.

There are several factor, members explained, which influence the selection of toilet design pertaining to any specific area, they include:

• Type of soil- normal soil, black cotton, sandy, rocky, and soils specific to high water table areas
• Local material availability (especially for pit-lining and superstructure)
• Water availability and its use in different types of toilets (i.e. VIP toilet, wet toilet, eco san toilet)
• Up-grade possibilities

In addition, when selecting the building material for a specific location it is important to keep in mind the following aspects:

• Type of pit lining- brick, cement concrete, stone, clay ring, bamboo sheet, drum, RCC ring, etc.
• Squatting platform- RCC, Ferro cement, etc.
• Junction chamber-  PVC pipe, stone lining drain, masonry junction chamber, etc.
• Superstructure- mud, jute cloth, tin sheets, brick, stone, bamboo, etc.

The respondents suggested basic, low-cost Individual Household Latrines/Toilets (IHHL) are one type of toilet technology, which provide different options for the type of materials used to line the pit, sub-structure and super structure. There are two basic types of IHHLs, wet toilets and dry/VIP toilets. Wet toilets come in four forms- single, single offset, single pit with partition and twin pit. There are two types of dry/VIP toilet- single and double.

Members felt for rural areas the leaching pit type latrine with deep slope rural pan (32° slope) with a 20 mm water seal is one appropriate and economical type of toilet for rural areas. They recommended using two pits alternatively; the first pit at least 1 meter away from the second to avoid seepage of water from one pit into the other. The first pit is used and the other pit remains closed to allow for anaerobic decomposition of the night soil.

Toilet Options for Areas with Black Cotton Soil

Black cotton soil has a low water absorption capacity, thus members advised selecting toilets with more absorptive qualities; either by constructing a large pit or by providing a lining of sand and gravel all around the pit. Members suggested that a pit with a 1.2-meter diameter, 1.5 to 2 meters deep and a sand lining of 500 mm would work well. On one-hand members opined, that a good low-cost option for treating sullage in villages is a soak pit. They felt soak pits work well in black cotton soils if there is a layer of sand about a foot wide on all sides. In Pune, this is the approach used, one member mentioned.

At the same time, members contended given that black cotton soil does not percolate sullage very easily, the soak pit option might not work. They suggested creating the conditions required to drain the water from sullage and felt a soak trench was a better option. A soak trench is similar to a soak pit, except that it is deep, long and covered. Members explained the exact depth and length of the trench is specific to the region and the depth of the black cotton soil. This option is a variable for individual households or a group of houses and the cost will vary accordingly. Members estimated the cost of one soak trench for an individual household would range from Rs. 3,000 to 5,000, with the unit cost decreasing with the number of households (group treatment).

Members also suggested another sullage treatment option in areas with black cotton soil, which is taking sullage outside the village/community. After straining away the solids (using coir material placed in a pot, located in a chamber), the sullage could be channeled through PVC pipes, and held in holding ponds to be used for irrigation. In addition, members noted that if sullage is free from septic tank effluents and composed purely of bath and kitchen waste, the BOD will be low and thus the sullage can be disposed on land through either irrigation or land utilization. For example, rural communities in Punjab are using constructed wetlands and duckweed ponds as sullage water treatment plants. Members also mentioned root-zone beds are another possible land utilization sullage disposal method.

Rural communities, members felt, need assistance in building awareness on ecological sanitation and appropriate technology for their region. This would help rural communities better utilize and maintain available toilets, preventing a return to status quo.

Comparative Experiences

Soak Trench (from Raj Kumar Daw, UNICEF, New Delhi; response 1, response 2)

It is a long pit- 6 m long, 0.5 m wide and 1 m to 1.5 m deep. For black cotton soil, if the pit bottom reaches the murram layer, then the conditions for soakage are very favorable. The pit should have a soakage conduit pipe and be perforated along its bottom with slits or holes. This is supposed to create a leakage surface from the lower side of the pipe and use the upper pipes to hold the soil away and prevent collapse, which would choke the conduit passage. For details

Leaching Pit Type Toilet (from Bhawna Vajpai, Water and Sanitation Consultant, New Delhi)

Leach pit toilets are a low cost toilet, starting from Rs. 500. For example, constructing a pit lined with brick will cost between Rs. 2,500 to Rs. 4,700. The substructure (twin pit, pit cover, brick and sand lining, connecting pipe) cost Rs. 1500, the foundation (junction chamber, sitting platform, rural pan, trap and foot rest) cost Rs.700 and the costs for the superstructure range from Rs. 300 to Rs. 2500

DEWATS (from Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi)

DEWATS is a set of treatment systems, which does not transport waste over long-distances. It mostly uses anaerobic treatment, multiple baffle septic tanks for sewage, polishing ponds and aquatic plants with root-zone aeration systems, and sand bed or gravel filters. Read more

Duckweed Based Wastewater Treatment System (from D.M. Mohan, Independent Consultant, Secunderabad)

A duckweed based stabilization pond functions as an anaerobic pond except at the top layer where aerobic condition prevails. The pond is able to control effectively any odor problems. Duckweed is capable of up taking nutrients from wastewater, making it a biological purifier. This low costing technique facilitates resource recovery and environmental protection. It is being promoted by the Punjab State Council for Science and Technology. Read more

Reed Bed System for Waste Water, Sullage and Sewage Treatment (from Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate)

The INDION reed bed system is an engineered simulation of a natural wetland ecosystem for treating and recycling of sullage, sewage and industrial effluent. It combines physicochemical and biological processes into a single operation to form a complete treatment unit, using minimal energy. Read more

Related Resources

Recommended Organizations

Punjab State Council for Science and Technology (from D.M. Mohan, Independent Consultant, Secunderabad)
MGSIPA Complex, Adjacent Sacred Heart School, Sector 26, Chandigarh Punjab; Tel: 0172- 2792325/2793300/2793600; Fax: 0172-2793143; info@pscst.com; http://www.pscst.com/en/index.htm
Contains information on their sullage treatment technologies promoted in rural communities

BORDA-Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association (from Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation,New Delhi)
FEDINA-BORDA, DEWATS Coordination, #220, 4th ‘A’ Cross, 3rd Block, HRBR Layout, Kalyan Nagar, Bangalore 560043 Karnataka; Tel: 91-8025431772; Fax: 91-8025431773
borda.india@vsnl.net; borda-india@dishnetdsl.net
Recommended for details DEWATS-Process-Decentralized Waste Water treatment systems for definitive concepts for various types of waste water

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) (from Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate)
Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440020 Maharashtra; Tel: 91-07122249886/88; Fax: 072224900
http://neeri.res.in/
Researched problems from sewage farming, crop and soil responses to wastewater treatments, formed guidelines for sewage farming systems, and related health effects

Recommended Documentation

From Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi
Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS)
http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res03050601.doc (Size: 44 KB)
Details DEWATS’s technical approach, and provides data drawn from some sullage treatment projects Vigyan Vijay Foundation conducted, which yielded satisfactory results

Wastewater Disposal in Heavy Clay Soils (from Raj Kumar Daw, UNICEF, New Delhi)
http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res14050601.pdf (Size: 96 KB)
Explains with illustrations the functioning of soak trench technology and the context in which its application is suitable

Constructed Wetland Technology (from D.M. Mohan, Independent Consultant, Secunderabad)
Punjab State Council for Science and Technology; 2005
http://www.punjabenvironment.com/water_cwetland.htm
Provides details on constructed wetland technology as an alternative to conventional systems like Activated Sludge Plants and Trickling filters in the rural areas of Punjab

From Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate
Duckweed Based Wastewater Treatment System and Assessment of Nutritive Value and Economic Return
Parvesh- Newsletter from Central Pollution Control Board
http://cpcb.nic.in/r&d-cpcb/ch7-20603.htm

Studies efficacy and assesses the economic returns from pisciculture (fed on duckweed) and evaluates its nutritive value when applied to treat sullage ponds

Treatment Wetland Applications in India’s Villages for Sullage Quality Improvement
By John Pries, Kapil Chaudhery, and Dr. Rajesh Grover; Department Biologie, Universiteit Utrecht; Utrecht, The Netherlands;July 1, 2004
http://www.bio.uu.nl/intecol/programme/cnt_abstract.php?frm=T6_cs4_10.pdf (Size: 60 KB)
Abstract on existing natural (duckweed and subsurface flow wetland) wetlands as a relatively low cost and effective sullage treatment system in India Update No. 2, March 2004

ION Exchange (India) Ltd.; Mumbai
http://www.ionindia.com/pdf/water_tech/updates/Update%20march%2004.pdf (Size: 142 KB)
This issue spotlights some of the drinking water and sewage treatment projects undertaken for communities and townships.

Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in some Countries in Asia
Newsletter and Technical Publications, United Nations Environment Programme
http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications/TechPub-8e/tech.asp
Provides details the experiences of different countries using alternative technology to treat wastewater, including technology descriptions, systems and processes

Related Past Consolidated Replies
 Low cost and ecologically sound sanitation practices, from Dinesh Kumar, IWMI, Anand (Comparative Experience). Issued 3 October 2005
http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/cr-se-wes-03100501.htm
Identifies low-cost, ecologically sound sanitation practices for urban and rural areas, and experiences in adopting these methods

Treatment of Wastewater for Reuse, from K.A.S Mani, APFAMGS, Hyderabad, (Experiences). Issued 14 March 2006
http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/cr-se-wes-14030601.htm
Explores range of approaches in wastewater treatment covering small household level treatment devices, middle range technologies and large intensive solutions

Responses in Full

Bhawna Vajpai, Water and Sanitation Consultant, New Delhi
 I am an Independent Water and Sanitation Consultant, selection of inappropriate technology option is also a big factor for non-use/ non-functional toilet in rural areas. I have seen in many villages due to faulty design and non-consideration of soil type lead to malfunctioning/ non-operational toilets. Even if community is willing to use toilet, but in rural setting if once their toilet is blocked/ non-functional they usually start going back to field.

Various on site and Off site toilets options are leach pit toilet, VIP toilet, Septic tank, alternative sanitation technologies like ecological sanitation, various community treatment system like Wet composting etc shall be selected by taken in mind the water table, construction cost, maintenance, ease of skilled labour etc.
Leaching pit type latrine with deep slope rural pan (32° slope) having 20 mm water seal is found most appropriate and economical for rural areas. Two pits are used alternatively. One pit is connected at a time while the other is closed for anaerobic decomposition of night soil. A distance of 1 m is recommended between 2 leaching pits to avoid seepage of water from one to the other.

I would also suggest mobilizing the community about the ecological sanitation toilets especially in water scarce areas, since they require minimum water and are ecologically sustainable.

UNICEF, Bhopal has recently published a Guidebook/module on various toilet technologies based on soil type authored by Dr. Sam Godfrey, project Officer and myself. Guidebook is in Hindi and you may contact Dr. Godfrey to know more about guidebook.

Basic Low cost IHHL Technology:
1.     Wet Toilet (Leach pit)- Four Type  (Single pit/ single offset pit/ twin pit/ single pit with partition).
2.     Dry/VIP Toilet- Two type (Single pit or double pit)

Above basic toilet type may further create various option by using different type of pit lining, sub structure and super structure material.

Selection of design shall depend upon following factor
1.     Type of soil (Normal soil, Black cotton, Sandy, Rocky, high water table areas)
2.     Availability of local material, especially for pit lining and superstructure
3.     Water availability in the area (VIP toilet, Wet toilet, eco san toilet).
4.     Up gradation possibility.

Selection of Material:

§     Type of Pit lining; Brick, Cement concrete, Stone, Clay ring, bamboo sheet, drum, RCC ring etc.
§     Squatting platform; RCC, Ferro cement etc
§     Junction Chamber;  PVC pipe, stone lining drain, Masonry junction chamber etc
§     Superstructure; Mud, Jute cloth, Tin sheet, Brick, stone, bamboo etc.

Toilet in Black Cotton soil:
Black cotton soil has low water absorption capacity; toilet should be designed for more absorption either by constructing large pit or by providing the lining of sand and gravel all around the pit. Pit of 1.2-meter diameter and 1.5 to 2 meter depth with Sand lining of 500 mm is appropriate.  For all rural toilet use of deep slope rural pan should be made.

Approximate cost of twin pit toilet in black cotton soil: Cost shall vary depending upon the material use, I am putting example of brick lining leach pit toilet other. Other low cost option by using low cost/ local material can be made that may range from 500 onward.
1.     Substructure (twin pit, pit cover, brick and sand lining, connecting pipe): Rs. 1500/-
2.     Foundation (Junction chamber, sitting platform, rural pan, trap and foot rest): Rs.700/-
3.     Superstructure:  Rs. 300 to Rs. 2500/-

I shall be happy to provide any other input on rural toilet technology.

All the best wishes for your endeavour.

Ajit Seshadri, The Vigyan Vijay Foundation, New Delhi

There are simple methods of process and treatment of sullage water i.e waste water other than sewage. For sewage the time tested septic tank-soak-pit combination is ideal other than locations with sub-soil water being at lesser depths.

There is a forum called BORDA-Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association with their India office at Bangaloreaddress FEDINA-BORDA,Dewats Coordination, #220, 4th ‘A’ Cross, 3rd Block, HRBR Layout, Kalyan Nagar, Bangalore 560043,India. Tel nos 91 80 25431772, Fax- 91 80 25431773 Email: borda.india@vsnl.net and borda-india@dishnetdsl.net Concerned person Mr. Pedro Kraemer - Co-ordinator. The members may be already aware that this forum has been propagating DEWATS-Process-Decentralized Waste Water treatment systems for developing countries and have definitive concepts for various types of waste water etc.

We have done training under them and have also been implementing projects on these lines and in 6 sites with satisfactory results. And also have some researching data from IIT-Delhi. The solution being explained has the data drawn from some projects and of-course some site specific moderations would have to be done. But in generality some feasibility and costs can be worked out on this process. 

N.V.V. Raghava, World Bank, New Delhi

The best possible lower cost option for treating sullage in villages is Soak Pits. To make them function in black cotton soils, there could be a sand layer of about a foot wide both on the sides and bottom. In Maharashtra, this option is being followed in Pune district. The other option for black cotton soils could be to take sullage to a point outside the village, after straining away the solids (using coir material placed in a pot, located in a chamber), through PVC pipes, and hold the sullage in holding ponds and use it for irrigation. But this might have mosquito nuisance, and may require minimal treatment.

D.M. Mohan, Independent consultant, Secunderabad

Sullage from a rural community is amenable for treatment as long as the sullage is free from septic tank effluents and is purely from bath and kitchen waste since  BOD values will not be high the sullage can be disposed on land  by utilisation/ irrigation. Such methods for disposal include root zone bed, constructed wetland, duckweed pond etc. Recently I had an opportunity to visit a few plants for treatment of sullage water (including septic tank effluents) in rural communities of Punjab. These sullage plants are Constructed wetland and Duckweed pond.

In both sites the sullage was effectively treated. I am not sure whether these will be successful in black cotton soil. Howvever in Punjab, the Punjab State Council for Science and Technology have been prmoting the technology for providing sullage treatment facilities in rural communities. More details can be obtained from them. Their web site is www.psct.com and telephone nos are 0172- 2792325, 2793300, 2793600.

Raj Kumar Daw, UNICEF, New Delhi (response 1)

The substance of the query is that black cotton soil does not percolate the sullage very easily. So you need to ceate the conditions so that the water from sullage is drained out. A soak pit option here does not work. Creating a long infiltration trench is the objective of the technical solution. A deep trench of 1.5 meters deep by 0.5 meters broad and  5 to 6 meters long should be constructed. Ideally at that depth if  you reach 'Murum' a hard porous type of soil half the battle is won. Alternately dig a bit deeper till you hit 'Murum'. The you lay a PCV pipe of 6 inches diameter. This pipe should be porous at the bottom and covered from top. In the market you get porous pipes that are porous all round. So you need to cover the top part of the pipe with tarpaulin to ensure only lower half is porous. Then there should be a vertical PVC non porous pipe at the end of the porous pipe at the end of the trench. Ideally fill the trench with a layer of gravel or broken construction material and then lay the pipe and then cover it with gravel again. Then put a layer of sand over it so it fills up to 0.5 meters. Fill up the remaining trench with the material dug from the trench.

This trench needs to be connected with a two chambered collection pit built from bricks needs to be created below ground level to collect the sullage. This can be a trench of 2 by 3 feet collection chamber that is two feet deep. The two chambers are separated by a partition wall that is 4 to 5 inches below the top. The first chamber also called the pre-sedimentation chamber, will allow for the sullage to settle and the overflow will enter the trench.

The main cost of the solution is in the perforated PVC pipes that are needed to be fitted inside the trench and the vertical pipe to this horizontal perforated pipe buried underground. The rest of it is labor cost for digging trench and filling it up. At a household level it would cost between Rs. 3000 to 5000 and the cost will comedown in group treatment due to economies of scale. The technical solution will be specific to the region and the depth of the black cotton soil. This solution can be used for individual households or for a group of houses. The cost will vary accordingly.

Raj Kumar Daw, UNICEF, New Delhi (response 2)

Following my earlier response please see the document explaining further the details of soak trench as a method to dispose waste water (sullage)
Many thanks to all who contributed to this query!

If you have further information to share on this topic, please send it to Solution Exchange for WES-Net at se-wes@solutionexchange-un.net.in with the subject heading “Re: [se-wes] Query: Low-cost technology for treating sullage in special soils, from Byrraju Foundation,    Hyderabad (Advice). Additional Response.”

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Compiled by Pankaj Kumar S. and Alok Srivastava, Resource Persons; additional research provided by Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate and Happy Pant, Research Officer
8 September 2006

Original Query: V. Kurian Baby, Socio-Economic Unit Foundation (SEUF), Kerala, Posted: 3 August 2006

Reforms in water and sanitation (watsan) sector have by now become institutionalized through: (a) pilot testing of alternate service delivery models by donors and GoI in selected locations and subsequent scaling up into programmes such as Swajaldhara and TSC across the country; (b)  evidences of community acceptance, confidence and credibility in genuine reforms (c) demonstrated willingness to pay for assured, reliable and quality water services demonstrated at community level and (d) vesting watsan governance as a desirable responsibility to PRIs.
 
In Kerala, the Jala Nidhi programme is being implemented in selected 80 Gram Panchayats of 4 districts with the objective of assisting the Government of Kerala in improving the quality of rural water supply and environmental sanitation service delivery and to achieve sustainability of investments in the water sector. The programme covers partial capital costs and full cost sharing of O&M and has received an excellent response.

Experiences of the programme in various Gram Panchayats has shown that the success of the programme has helped political representatives to derive positive mileage from the programme, which could have been one of the factors responsible for their re-election for a second term. Although the degree and nature of correlation between water sector governance and political prospects is yet to be adequately explored, effective watsan governance seems to make good political sense to PRIs. Yet, decentralized and sustainable service delivery is still in its infancy across the country.

In the above context, I request members to share their experiences on the following:

Experiences from other parts of India where PRIs have effectively implemented watsan service delivery programmes. The institutional, political, technical, capacity-building and/or other factors that prevent gram panchayats from effective implementation of watsan reforms. Suggestions on enhancing the buy-in of political institutions (including gram panchayats) for good watsan governance and long term sustainability. Evidence, if any, to corroborate the correlation between improved watsan governance and political/electoral prospects.

Responses received with thanks from:
1. Rakesh Gupta, Deputy Commissioner, Karnal, Haryana
2. S. Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, c/o Plan International, New Delhi
3. Amitava Basu Sarkar, Himalayan Institute Hospital Trust, Dehradun
4. P. V. Thomas, Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals (ISAP), New Delhi
5. Arun Dobhal, Swajal Project, Dehradun
6. Ashok Kumar Paikaray, Mahavir Yubak Sangh, Bhubaneswar
7. Anita Karwal, Sardar Patel Institute Public Administration, Ahmedabad    
8.  Bikash Rath, Vasundhara, Bhubaneswar
9.  Saroj Kumar Dash, C ouncil for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (C APART ) , Bhubaneswar
10. N. Sanyasi Rao, Action in Rural Technology and Service (ARTS), Srikakulam
11. Biswajit Padhi, S rusti , Khariar
12. Parth Das, Unnati , Ahmedabad
13. Yogesh Kumar, Samarthan - Centre for Development Support, Bhopal
14. Nirmala Sanu George, SDC C APDECK, Thiruvananthapuram
15. Debadutta K Panda, MP Associates, Bhubaneswar

Further contributions are welcome!

Summary of Responses

The query on the role of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in effective management of water and sanitation (watsan) services stimulated members to present successful and not-so-successful examples of Panchayat-based watsan schemes. Respondents listed factors preventing PRIs effective watsan governance. They also identified capacity-building topics for PRIs and gave suggestions to improve the efficiency and buy-in of panchayats to responsibility for watsan governance.

Respondents presented several examples from a number of states where panchayats have demonstrated varying degrees of ability implementing watsan service delivery programmes. National programmes such as the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC), Swajaldhara and Bharat Nirman are implementing several projects through PRIs. For example, in Karnal, Haryana, the district achieved dramatic improvements in sanitation through multi-stakeholder support from the PRIs, Panchayati Raj Department, Anganwadi workers and media.

Similarly, examples from other regional programs in Kerala demonstrated how PRIs meet the water needs of un-reached populations in a creative and cost-effective manner, and are now involved in advanced issues like long-term planning of water resources, integrated water management and water literacy. Participants reported that some panchayats in Maharashtra have waived house taxes and are meeting the revenue loss by selling waste, while another project from Orissa enhanced technical and organizational capacities of PRIs to maintain watsan infrastructure. Another example is a panchayat from Madhya Pradesh that installed a piped water supply system and implemented a sanitation scheme, managing it through tax-based revenue.

However, an experience from Orissa indicated that watsan programmes initiated with involvement of the District Administration and PRI representatives later ended up with minimal involvement of PRIs. Similarly, a watsan experience fromUttaranchal indicates that sustainability of schemes depends on actual users and that PRIs can at best play a monitoring and supportive role. These experiences show that the degree and impact of implementation of watsan programmes varies from district to district and the correlation between active PRIs and effective implementation of watsan programmes needs further analysis.

Members listed a number of factors preventing PRIs from taking up effective watsan management. Among institutional factors, participants felt that while PRIs are being given more and more responsibilities, they are not empowered financially nor given the opportunity to develop adequate skills to manage these. In this context, members mentioned a case in Madhya Pradesh where the state government transferred watsan infrastructure to PRIs without sufficient capacity building, and later decided that panchayats had failed to maintain them. Additionally the relationship between PRIs, which have constitutional authority and local water institutions such as Pani Panchayats (without a constitutional mandate) or MANISAs is ambiguous; often leading to inappropriate interface between the two. In addition, members also mentioned lack of proper infrastructure and adequate human resources for carrying out watsan as factors leading to inefficient watsan service delivery by PRIs.

Participants stressed lack of support from upper tiers of PRIs is another factor impeding watsan management. Another difficulty is that staff of various government line departments tend to resent being in positions that make them subservient to PRIs. Members also felt line departments need to have their capacities developed to handle the demand-driven style of operation now required, as opposed to the earlier supply-driven approach. Moreover, “technical” departments such as Public Health Engineering Department still consider technical knowledge their domain, even though decisions made by panchayat members often lead to significantly cheaper and more sustainable outcomes. Respondents noted other factors preventing effective watsan implementation are lack of revenue collection models for PRIs in watsan and government sidelining panchayats when NGOs are the implementing agencies.

Quoting examples where improved watsan delivery by PRIs has enhanced electoral prospects of panchayat functionaries, participants pointed out that water is a basic service that citizens expect PRIs to deliver. This is also, why panchayats feel pressurised to improve their performance in watsan.

Respondents listed areas to build management capacity of PRI functionaries in watsan. Firstly, awareness about the implications of 73rd Constitutional Amendment and corresponding state laws is of the utmost importance. In addition, the capacities of panchayats to address household level issues like toilet usage, wastewater disposal and rainwater harvesting needs developing, felt members. Additionally, a change in political leadership following elections makes earlier trainings irrelevant because the new representatives now have to receive training.

Members provided some suggestions to enhance watsan governance by PRIs.

• Reorientation of state agencies for enhancing the role of PRIs from mere involvement in implementation of watsan programmes to actual empowerment by devolution of funds, functions and functionaries.
• Using tools like effective activity mapping and localised, folk media based IEC to strengthen panchayats as primary stakeholders and service providers of watsan.
• Introducing pricing policies based on water use to sustain financially water governance institutions. Here, members cited the dual water tariff system of USA, incorporating a positive marginal cost for additional unit of water consumed. 

The group also suggested ways to enhance the buy-in of PRIs in watsan governance. They emphasised giving panchayats the flexibility to plan and implement watsan infrastructure. In places where panchayats have flexibility, such as in Kerala, PRIs have used local sources and creative solutions to improve access and quality of watsan, have achieved a close rapport and better accountability with their constituency. Other methods they suggested were revenue generation through watsan services, like in Madhya Pradesh, and building and maintaining untied corpus funds. Members also presented an innovative experience from Gujarat, where all municipal candidates, irrespective of whether they had won or lost, were trained because the functionaries would all come from same pool.

To conclude, members emphasised the need to strengthen PRIs institutionally, financially and capacity-wise to improve watsan governance. They stressed that watsan services require institutionalization in the larger body of water users, even though delivering of good watsan services may provide temporary electoral success.

Comparative Experiences

Haryana

Total Sanitation Campaign in Karnal District (from Rakesh Gupta, Deputy Commissioner-cum-District Magistrate, Karnal, Haryana)
The district water & sanitation scheme undertook extensive IEC activities to promote sanitation; however, coverage of toilets for Below Poverty Line (BPL) families only increased on paper. To remedy this, in 2005 the government used an inter-departmental approach involving PRIs, the media, Anganwadi workers and the Panchayati Raj Department. The strategy resulted in 109 of 380 panchayats achieving 100% coverage in above poverty line & BPL households. Read more.

Orissa

From S. Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, c/o Plan International, New Delhi
Drinking Water Project in Kalahandi District
An NGO implemented a program from 1997-2000, which developed a successful model involving PRIs to maintain hand pump. It consisted of training PRI functionaries, establishing spare part banks, and training and paying a small honorarium to local youth to serve as mechanics- thereby addressing maintenance delays and creating a closer relationship between PRIs and communities. However, it eventually failed because the government withdrew the honorarium.

Maharashtra

Tax Waver for Better Waste Management
Under the Government’s Water Supply and Sanitation programme, some panchayats chose to reward better waste management practices of individual households by waiving their house tax. The panchayats made up the revenue loss by promptly selling waste disposed of by their communities in one location. Moreover, even if they failed to make up the full loss, it prevented additional expenditures to deal with problems caused by poor water and sanitation facilities.

Gujarat

“Sevavrutti Abhiyan” Capacity Building Exercise (from Anita Karwal, Sardar Patel Institute Public Administration, Ahmedabad)
The state recently trained all candidates (irrespective of whether they won or loss) who contested the last urban local body elections in municipal administration. They decided to train all candidates after observing that the pool of contestants in the local elections remains more or less the same. The exercise received a very positive response, now there are demands to institutionalize the training process and conduct sessions at least twice a year. For more details

Andhra Pradesh

Community Based Organizations (from N. Sanyasi Rao, Action in Rural Technology and Service ( ARTS) , Srikakulam)
ARTS supported MANISAs, community-based organisations to implement a water and sanitation programme in Seethangaram and Kurapam mandals of Vizianagaram. The MANISAs are constructing and managing water supply systems and the communities are contributing. ARTS is helping facilitate the process having PRIs collect the contributions to maintain the watsan infrastructure. The PRIs are still in the process of taking over the systems from MANISAs.

Kerala

From Nirmala Sanu George, SDC C APDECK, Trivandrum
Water User Committees in Kozhikode District
The centralized water supply covers only a few households. To overcome this problem, the community from the Olavanna panchayat formed local beneficiary (water user) committees as part of an initiative to provide safe drinking water to all households. The groups identified local water sources, and formulated, implemented, and monitored micro-projects. Later the panchayats made the project part of their plan integrating resources, schemes and contributions.

Local Developmental Creativity in Ernakulum District
Chellanam is a coastal panchayat, with salty water. Being a ‘tail end’ place from the pumping station, the panchayat receives very little water and in the gram sabha, the community raised this problem. Various solutions were tried- local technologies, integrated with new technologies and discovering methods on a contextual basis . In the absence of other water resources people resorted to storing rainwater using different methods.

Water Conservation Project in Trivandrum District
An initiative by SEWA and the Vilappil panchayat, supported by SDC-CapDecK, is devising sustainable development norms with water, soil and energy as major components. The initiative is working to establish cooperative relationships for conserving water. The NHGs, gram sabhas and the panchayat committees discussed and made some discussions. For more details

Micro-Projects in Water Resource Management
In three panchayats in Palakkad district, National Healthcare Groups (NHGs) formulated micro-projects in water resource management, & presented them in the G ram S abha . They were included in the panchayat plan & NHGs implemented them. The panchayats are also developing a long-term perspective plan to manage water, monitoring the local water situation through the resource centre, & conducting awareness programmes for the community and school students. 

Madhya Pradesh

From Yogesh Kumar, Samarthan - Centre for Development Support, Bhopal  
 Panchayat Maintaining Water Supply by Collecting Taxes in Sehore District
In Manpura village, the Rola panchayat installed and maintained a piped water supply scheme by collecting taxes on use. The village has attained ‘open defecation free’ (OD free) status, every household has a toilet and a soak pit for household wastewater. Additionally all houses have a roof-water harvesting structure to improve the area’s depleting water table. The neighboring Rajukhedi panchayat has replicated the scheme and has also attained OD free status . Read more

Transferring O&M of Water Supply to Panchayats
The government attempted to transfer the O&M of the water supply to panchayats by issuing a hasty order without making adequately developing the capacities of panchayats. Subsequently, the government suddenly withdrew the order citing a poor maintenance rate of hand-pumps. However, there was no independent survey of functioning hand-pumps done prior to the order and there was no systematic study to determine the reasons for the poor performance.

Related Resources
Recommended Documentation
Case Study: Manpura Village, Sehore District, Madhya Pradesh (from Yogesh Kumar, Samarthan - Centre for Development Support, Bhopal)
http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res24080601.doc (Size: 194 KB)
Provides a case study of the Rola panchayat in Manpura village of Sehore District, which installed and maintained a piped water supply scheme by collecting taxes on water

From Ramya Gopalan, Research Associate
 Detailed Implementation Plan for Modernizing Government Program
Water Resources Department, Government of Kerala; November 2003
Click here to view PDF (Size: 373 KB)
Explains how to frame and implement a holistic water resources policy fully integrated with a total sanitation sub-policy to address issues in a coordinated manner

Project Implementation Plan
Vizianagaram Initiatives on Sanitation, Hygiene Education and Water Supply (Vishwas); February 2004
Click here to view PDF (Size: 855 KB)
Document outlines the VISHWAS’ implementation strategy that is consistent with national policies and relies on CBOs/NGOs to execute relatively small schemes in the water sector

Rehabilitating the Urban Water Sector in Cambodia
Water Supply and Sanitation Feature Stories, No. 9; March 2006
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWSS/Resources/cambodia.pdf (Size: 100 KB)
Discuses the Urban Water Supply Project, which assisted development of national water supply and sanitation policy to foster well performing public utilities

From Happy Pant, Research Officer
 Lessons from DFID Water and Sanitation Programmes in Pakistan: Developing Programmes with Local Government and Civil Society (Briefing Note 21)                  
By Julie Fisher and Kevin Sansom; WELL: Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC),
Click here to view document
Briefing Note presents experiences of DFID-Pakistan in urban and rural water supply and sanitation programmes following devolution of powers to local governments

Water and Sanitation Priority Sector (Community and Infrastructure): Reconstruction Needs Assessment forLiberia
United Nations, World Bank and the Transitional Government of Liberia; December 2003
Click here to view document
Outlines the water and sanitation sector needs assessment conducted to create action plans for tow years (2004-2005), to address the identified needs

Recommended Organizations
 Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) (from P. V. Thomas, Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals (ISAP), New Delhi andArun Dobhal, Swajal Project, Dehradun)
http://ddws.nic.in/tsc-nic/html/index.html
This program is b eing implemented in rural areas to ensure communities have sanitation facilities, with broader goal to eradicate the practice of open defecation

Swajaldhara (from P. V. Thomas, Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals (ISAP), New Delhi; Arun Dobhal, Swajal Project, Dehradun; and Saroj Kumar Dash, Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART), Bhubaneswar)
http://www.swajal.org/dhara.htm
The project provides guidelines for PRIs to be involved in implementing the scheme- emphasizes empowering and capacity building of PRIs

Nirmal Gram Puraskar (from P. V. Thomas, Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals (ISAP), New Delhi)
http://ddws.nic.in/tsc-nic/html/ngp1.htm
Incentive scheme initiated for PRIs to ensure complete sanitation and ‘open defecation free’ status at the village, block, and district level

From S. Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, c/o Plan International, New Delhi
Antodaya
Kaniguma via Bhawanipatna 766001, Kalahandi District Orissa; Tel: 91-667032038/34012; Fax: 91-667032038;antodaya_kld@hotmail.com; http://www.interconnection.org/antodaya/drinking.html
Implemented a drinking water project, which enabled a close rapport between PRIs and communities and reduced delays in repair and maintenance of water sources

Water Supply and Sanitation Department
Government of Maharashtra, first floor, WSSD, Mantralaya, Nariman Point 400001 Mumbai
http://www.mahawssd.gov.in/prjInnov.asp?innovid=132
Department is implementing the Water Supply and Sanitation Program, which has an initiative where taxes are waived for households with better waste management practices

Sardar Patel Institute of Public Administration (from Anita Karwal )
http://spipa.gujarat.gov.in/
Conducted a capacity building exercise called Sevavrutti Abhiyan for candidates contesting ULB elections, replicable for PRIs working in water and other services
 SDC – CAPDECK (from Nirmala Sanu George)
Pattom, Trivandrum 695004, Kerala; Tel: 0471-2543392; Fax: 0471-2543391; capdeck@md5.vsnl.net.in
This program on Capacity Development for Decentralization in Kerala is recommended for its initiatives in water resource management particularly the one in Palakkad district

Responses in Full

Rakesh Gupta, Deputy Commissioner, Karnal, Haryana
 I would like to share a success story in my district in involving Panchayats in water and sanitation, which would be of interest to members. We have made dramatic achievements in Total Sanitation Campaign in the past ten months in Karnal District (Haryana) by involving the Panchayats.
 While working as Chief Executive Officer of the DRDA in the same district five years ago, we had undertaken extensive IEC activities for promotion of sanitation and also involved NGOs in the process. The coverage of toilets amongst Below Poverty Line (BPL) families increased consistently on paper, but these toilets were rarely built or used by village people in reality.

Later, as Chairman, DRDA-cum-Deputy Commissioner in Karnal in October 2005, we initiated a water and sanitation scheme using an inter-departmental approach. We involved Village heads (Sarpanches) in a big way in the process. We also honoured 109 panchayats (out of total of 380 in the district) on Republic Day 2006 for having achieved 100% toilet coverage in both Above Poverty Line (APL) and BPL households. Before Independence Day 2006, about 190 panchayats will also achieve the same. We intend to cover the remaining 80 Panchayats or so within the next two months. We are short of about 15,000 households to reach the total target of 1,67,000 households, making the overall coverage to more than 90% (as against the national/state average of 30-45%). The Panchayati Raj Institutions, Media, Anganwadi workers and Panchayati Raj Department have played a crucial role in this campaign.

We will be happy if any external agency monitors the progress and advises us on our work. Let me add that we have used a unique model in Karnal district, which can be easily followed by other prosperous districts in India.

S. Ramesh Sakthivel, WES-Net India, c/o Plan International, New Delhi
I agree with Mr. Rakesh Gupta that involving PRIs, with appropriate support of NGOs/Government Departments, to work with communities/community groups brings about better synergy at the gross roots. A drinking water project implemented in the Kalahandi district of Orissa by Save the Children (UK), during 1997-2000, with support of DFID in close collaboration of Rural Water Supply (RWS) Department involvement of PRIs demonstrated a successful model beyond the traditional 3-tier maintenance system of hand pump/water sources. The project consisted:

Training of Panchayat functionaries on maintenance of water sources and registers of spare banks and repair schedules.
Spare part banks at Panchayats were established that functioned with support of RWS. Local youth were trained as mechanics by RWS (they were paid a honorarium of Rs. 50/- per pump per month by RWSS approved by Panchayat). This system effectively addressed the delay in repair and maintenance of water sources. The scheme brought very close rapport between PRIs and the communities leading to better accountability. Thus, PRIs looked upon this as an effective area of service to impress communities for better electoral prospect, while communities were able to gauge the effectiveness of their elected representatives clearly. Apparently, the scheme failed due to with drawl of the honorarium of Rs. 50/- per pump to trained youths per hand pump by the Government. For details, you may contact Antodaya, Kalahandi at antodaya_kld@hotmail.com.

Also, the waver of house tax by few Panchayats in Maharashtra to households for better waste management is interesting and praiseworthy under the Government’s water Supply and sanitation programme. This loss of revenue was made up by the Panchayat by selling waste disposed by the communities at one location promptly. Even if a Panchayat fails to make the entire loss of revenue, it prevents expenditure required to address issues caused due to poor water and sanitation facility in the future. This idea may be extend to cover issues like toilet usage, wastewater disposal and rainwater harvesting at the household level.

For more information, please visit the following site of Water Supply and Sanitation Department,Maharashtra. http://www.mahawssd.gov.in/prjInnov.asp?innovid=132

Amitava Basu Sarkar, Himalayan Institute Hospital Trust, Dehradun
There are no two ways about it.   PRIs are the grassroots level elected government closest to the ultimate users. And in any case the process of decentralization of power to the end users, to ensure sustainable development as per their felt need and effective self governance has reached a point of no return with the 73rd constitutional amendment.  So far so good!

Yet we should not go overboard, in our eagerness to kick-start the process.

1. PRIs have increasingly been handed over more and more power, without ever sparing a thought about empowering them appropriately and adequately to face the challenges! Thereby jeopardizing the sustainability of the momentum thus created.
2. The state agencies, mostly, have an attitude problem are not at all empowered to handle this new demand driven community participatory approach. They still think it is their monopoly and they are the boss of the sector. No doubt that they are the major players with wealth of experience, but in this new approach all the stakeholders are to combine together for a better tomorrow.  NGOs/CBOs/VOs are better equipped to handle this aspect.
3. The state agencies being the major players must reinvent themselves through strategic planning and training to live up to their billing. Until then let us keep our fingers crossed. Unfortunately none of them have shown any inkling in this regard till date!
4. Unbridled power given to the PRIs also is viewed with a tremendous amount of disgust and weariness among the government officers. The CR of the District Magistrate/Executive Engineer etc. is to be written by the PRI members of various different level! We must ponder and think how much of it is justifiable and practically sustainable!!!! The need of the hour is to opt for a balanced perspective.
Till we are crystal clear in our mind and been able to evolve a clear approach and methodology, the celebrations and euphoria and the ensuing hullabaloo may be relegated to the back burner.

P. V. Thomas, Indian Society of Agribusiness Professionals (ISAP), New Delhi
The Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) and Swajaldhara Programmes sponsored by the GoI, Ministry of Rural Development have been implemented in about 359 districts in the country during 2004 - 2005. Probably this number might have gone up and the remaining districts have been covered under these programmes.Right from the inception TSC and Swajaldhara have been implemented with the full involvement of PRIs at all levels. In order to encourage the PRIs, MoRD has also instituted awards in the form of "Nirmal Gram Puraskar" to reward relatively better performing Panchayats in implementation of these programmes. Several districts / blocks and gram panchayats have received this award in last two years.

During 2004-05 independent third party monitors were entrusted with the task of monitoring & evaluating the implementation of this programme. Quarterly and annual reports have been submitted by these agencies giving details about the performance of the programme at the district / block and village levels. Out of eights districts of Haryana surveyed by the evaluators, Karnal district presents a mixed bag of performance. The percentage of the fund utilized for Haryana as a whole is estimated at 81.65% while Karnal district has utilized only 75.5% although they had the maximum allocation of funds of Rs. 531.54 lakhs under TSC alone. However, in terms of targets Karnal have achieved the best results with nearly 63% of the target achieved whereas Haryana as a whole has achieved only 35% of the target.

Detailed report about project outlays and progress, targets and achievements, district wise distribution of toilets by year of construction, coverage of villages, location and other details are available in the report brought out by Agriwatch, the nodal agency who coordinated the survey operation. It is evident from the report that the degree and impact of implementation of TSC varies from district to district although the institutional framework of PRIs remain the same throughout the state.

There are several districts in the country, which have inactive and ineffective PRI institutions, and yet some of these districts have shown excellent record of performance in implementation of these two programmes. It is another matter that some of the State Government are adopting their own nomenclature to describe an essentially national programme the form and content of which remains the same. Panchayats, on the whole are encouraged to implement several of the popular programmes nation wide at least in principle and nothing can prevent the representatives of the grass root level in effectively implementing community oriented and socially useful programmes and schemes.

Arun Dobhal, Swajal Project, Dehradun
 The 73rd Constitutional Amendment entrusting the Panchayati Raj Institutions with the responsibility of 29 departments has been a watershed in the process of empowerment of the PRIs. Uttaranchal has made a significant progress towards this, and 14 departments including water supply have been devolved to the PRIs. The experience of Swajal-Phase I, the current Swajaldhara and Total Sanitation Campaign shows that sustainability of the schemes hinges on the actual users.

PRIs have a fixed tenure of five years and the election trends of PRIs show that they are virtually now held on commercial lines. These factors have a marked effect on any scheme’s sustainability. Every next lot of PRIs after five years requires another cycle of capacity building, training etc; moreover, they also have their usual prejudices against the previous regime. The whole process of stabilization of PRIs will take some more time. It is high time the actual user based model is practiced for the WATSAN sector by the PRIs with their role limited to monitoring of the service delivery and coordination with other stakeholders.

Ashok Kumar Paikaray, Mahavir Yubak Sangh, Bhubaneswar
I  have been involved  with TSC  in Orissa  since 2003  in Khordha, where it was launched under Water Sector Reforms. Initially, the District Administration, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Department and PRI representatives were all involved in the programme. However, now I feel that the PRIs are involved only on paper. PRIs must be involved much more, if the TSC programme is to be successful.

Anita Karwal, Sardar Patel Institute Public Administration, Ahmedabad    
I am responding to the message of Mr. Arun Dobhal with regard to this query.
We at Gujarat recently completed an interesting capacity building exercise called Sevavrutti Abhiyan. The participants were all contesting candidates of the last Urban Local Body elections. So all candidates without discrimination as to whether they had won or lost the last elections were trained about municipal administration. We had a tremendous response with demands for institutionalizing this process and conducting such programs at least twice a year. This was done after careful consideration of the fact that the pool of contestants in local body elections remains more or less the same. This is worth trying for the PRIs too. Otherwise, the fast turnover will affect the expected outcomes adversely.

Bikash Rath, Vasundhara, Bhubaneswar
Entrusting the PRIs with responsibilities of management of watsan infrastructure seems a step towards further decentralization of power. However, the irony is that even though PRIs are 'empowered' more and more, there is greater realization of the extent to which they are actually handicapped. Thus, without proper infrastructure, adequate human resources, and necessary technical knowledge, how can we expect them to perform all these activities? This is an important reason explaining why the projects fail either partially or completely in such cases. The Orissa government has recently decided therefore that instead of directly burdening the PRIs with the job of repairing tube wells, the concerned technical officer from the concerned department would be deputed to the PRIs to take care of the work under the supervision of the Panchayats. 

Saroj Kumar Dash, Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART), Bhubaneswar
It is really a matter of concern that although the National Water Supply and Sanitation Programme was introduced in the country during 1954, we are yet to reach a position to promise safe drinking water for all even by 2015.  Even with the introduction of ARWSP in 1972-73, setting of National Drinking Water Mission and opening of the Department of Drinking Water Supply since 1999, we are yet to cover all uncovered habitations and address the problem of water quality in all habitations.

In the above backdrop, the Panchayats can, in my opinion; the effective role for Panchayats in management of Safe Drinking Water can be as follows:

• The Swajaldhara guidelines mention that the PRIs can be involved in implementation of the scheme in selecting the location of hand pumps, stand posts and spot sources and in operation and maintenance.  However, emphasis on empowering and capacity building of the PRIs will enable them to discharge their responsibilities.       
• Drinking Water is also one of the components of `Bharat Nirman' but the targets set for Bharat Nirman will not be achieved unless we take village Panchayat bodies as primary stakeholders and service providers instead of banking on line-departments.  An effective activity mapping in this regard could be worked out as an initiative of effective devolution of 3Fs - funds, functions and functionaries.

Further, a demand responsive approach, community participation and effective activity mapping can really work for providing safe drinking water to all uncovered habitation by the year 2015. The IEC activities of the State and Union Government need to further strengthened by developing localised content and dissemination though folk media. An untied (Corpus) Fund may be provided to all Village Panchayats from the Administration to ensure effective operation and maintenance.

N. Sanyasi Rao, Action in Rural Technology and Service (ARTS), Srikakulam
Our organisation has promoted community-based organisations called MANISA to implement water and sanitation programme in Seethangaram and Kurapam mandals of Vizianagaram. The MANISAs are constructing water supply systems with community contribution and are managing them. Our organisation is facilitating the process of linking with PRIs to collect contributions to maintain the water supply and sanitation infrastructure in the Panchayats. The PRIs are still in a process of taking over the systems from MANISAs.

Biswajit Padhi, S rusti , Khariar
I would like to share my views on watsan activities in my own district- Nuapada in Orissa.

The government entrusted NGOs with the job of setting up low cost latrines in assigned villages without doing any need assessment. The PRIs were also never involved in the process nor their views taken. Later, the government agencies adopted very stringent measures for evaluation - they expected the NGOs to not only do community mobilisation but also build latrines with a financial assistance of Rs. 500 only. The money was to be given to NGOs after completion of construction & after the beneficiary started using it, followed by a certificate to be given by Junior Engineer, RWSS. It was impossible to do the above at such low cost and without any support from PRIs.
Now, the government has enhanced the amount for latrine construction but participation from PRIs is still lacking.

Parth Das, Unnati , Ahmedabad
I wish to share an experience of a gram panchayat, where we have seen that the effective implementation of a drinking water supply work had improved the electoral prospects of a panchayat leader, though the internal village politics finally did not let him contest the panchayat election and a consensus candidate was selected to file nomination. However, the current sarpanch gives a lot of weightage to the earlier Panchayat leader.

The gram sabha and gram panchayat were extensively involved in prioritization of issues identified in the village Micro Plan, and in designing and planning the implementation of the drinking water supply work. The gram panchayat organized two special gram sabhas that indicates the relevance of the gram sabha as a mechanism for organizing people. Considering the feudal and patriarchal society of western Rajasthan, the entire process was inclusive and focused on 'vulnerability reduction'.

Reasonable support was received from all departments/agencies/organizations in this. However, the following shortcomings could have been rectified:

• Institutional - Lack of substantial support from upper tiers of PRIs;
• Political - Change of political establishment and thus a little delay in the overall processes;
• Technical - Inadequate coordination between line departments; &
• Capacity Building - Lack of awareness of the 73rd CAA and the confirming State law among Gram Panchayat members.

Lessons learnt were that once the gram sabha is convinced of the objective of the process and its outcome, the goal may be achieved, though it may look difficult in the beginning.The entire process has to be inclusive across gender, caste, political affiliation etc. Differences and misconceptions/apprehensions get resolved though dialogue and action only.

Yogesh Kumar, Samarthan - Centre for Development Support, Bhopal  
Water and sanitation is one of the key services that a citizen demands from his/her local self governance body. Therefore, Panchayats feel a significant pressure for improving their performance in this area. Local communities have managed water using local wisdom since ages. Technological innovations such as India Mark II in water and twin-pit low-cost toilets in sanitation have also taken place, which are considered people-friendly but are still controlled by the Department of Public Health Engineering.

In several cases, Panchayats have the capacity and wisdom to choose an appropriate site for purchasing and installing a hand-pump or drilling a bore well. The Panchayat decisions are wise and cost effective at almost 40% to 50% lower than  the cost estimated by PHED. However, on technical grounds, Panchayat’s initiatives are discouraged and technical sanctions rejected on the pretext that it does not meet the desired technical norms/standards. This is why utilization rate of resources under WATSAN sector reform project of the Government - later called Swajal Dhara (a pro-decentralization project) is substantially low across the states, even in states considered far advanced in the decentralization process.

Water and sanitation cover cannot be attained unless the three tier PRI structure is strengthened, given flexibility and freedom to implement programmes. There are villages in MP, where the number of installed hand pumps is sufficient according to government criteria but half of them are dysfunctional. For Panchayats, such hand-pumps are meaningless whereas in the aggregated government statistics, these are saturated villages.

In Madhya Pradesh, as in other states, the government has made half-hearted attempts to transfer O&M of water supply to Panchayats by issuing an order overnight without adequate preparation on how Panchayats will deliver such an important function. Thus, the capacities that PRIs will require for performing this function, the appropriate level (viable size) to bear the cost of a mechanic and the resources needed to maintain a hand-pump at Panchayat level are not planned. The order was withdrawn overnight after a couple of years on the pretext that the maintenance rate of hand-pumps has gone down. No independent survey of functioning hand-pumps was done before handing over the pumps to Panchayats and no systematic study was done on the reasons for the poor performance by Panchayats to maintain hand-pumps before reverting back to PHED system.

There are several examples of demonstrated capacities of panchayats to take care of water and sanitation needs in their Panchayats. The Rola Panchayat in Manpura village of Sehore District installed has maintained a piped water supply scheme by collecting taxes on water. The Panchayat also installed the scheme. The village has attained ‘open defecation free’ status as every household has a toilet and a soak pit for household wastewater. There is a roof water harvesting structure in every house to improve the depleting water table in that area. The case study of the village can be found at the following link:http://www.solutionexchange-un.net.in/environment/cr/res24080601.doc
The example has been replicated in a neighboring Panchayat Rajukhedi, which has also attained OD free status.

Nirmala Sanu George, SDC C APDECK, Thiruvananthapuram
I would like to highlight a few specific examples from Kerala on Panchayati Raj and water. Considering water as part of the habitat in which we live, it has its linkages with shelter, health, livelihood means, sanitation and so on.  The components and determinants of rural habitat cannot be seen separate. I am just sharing a few local initiatives of water literacy, settlement norms, management, preservation and alternate methods.

The initiative taken by Olavanna panchayat of Kozhikode district in providing safe drinking water is a widely appreciated model. The centralized water supply would cover only a few households. Therefore they tired to overcome their water problems. They formed a local beneficiary (user) committee.  These groups identified local sources, formulated micro projects, implemented and monitored them.  Later these projects were part of the Panchayat plan and they tried to integrate in all resources, schemes and beneficiary contribution. The committee monitors the timely water supply, maintenance and water usage by the households.

Chellanam (Ernakulam district) is a coastal panchayat with salty water as its problem.  And being the ‘tail end’ place from the pumping station; the panchayat received very little water. Water was raised as the issue in gram sabha.  It is interesting to see how they tried to find out local technologies, integrate with new technologies and have different methods for different areas. In the absence of other water resources people resorted to storage of rainwater using different methods. It is a typical example of local developmental creativity which only Panchayati Raj can provide.

In Erimayoor, Eruthempathy and Vadakarappathy panchayats in Palakkad district, NHGs formulated micro projects in water resource management and presented them in the gram sabha.  These were included in the Panchayat Plan and NHGs implemented the projects.  There were also awareness programmes for the community and school students on conservation and natural resource management. At the school level they formed a water club.  A local long-term perspective plan for water management is being developed.  Panchayat resource centre, which has facilities to monitor climate, rainfall, water situation also functions at the panchayat office. They have also conducted water balance studies at the panchayat level. 

This was facilitated by an NGO called Maithri for these panchayats. Another initiative is by SEWA and Vilappil panchayat in Trivandrumdistrict to evolve sustainable development norms where water, soil and energy form the major components.  This is by establishing mutual relation and cooperation for conservation of water. The discussions and decisions are arrived at in the NHGs, gram sabhas and the panchayat committees. Water literacy has been their main plank. Both this initiatives were supported by SDC-CapDecK.

To conclude, rural habitat of which water is an indispensable component is to be managed locally.  It is only through decentralization that the linkages and integration can be made possible and strengthen the Gram Panchayats for effective implementation 

Debadutta K Panda, MP Associates, Bhubaneswar
The experience in Orissa in supporting people’s participation in water management through Pani Panchayats has unfolded several facets. In the event of a conflict between the Pani Panchayat committee with the Gram Panchayat, the former becomes weak and defunct because Gram Panchayats have a constitutional backing. If this continues, and if short-term and quick benefits do not appear in Pani Panchayats, people may soon get discouraged and develop apathy towards them.

A rational pricing policy based on water use by each Pani Panchayat can sustain the Pani Panchayats and make them financially autonomous. A possible system for ensuring financial sustainability could be a dual system of water tariff (as in USA), where a fixed levy is charged based on the area irrigated, followed with a charge on every additional unit of water used. In this way, a positive marginal cost is built into the pricing system and the price of water is kept sufficiently high to break even the O&M costs. Thus, traditional systems of water distribution and maintenance can be encouraged with a scientific reorientation and not be subject to external influences.

Many thanks to all who contributed to this query!

If you have further information to share on this topic, please send it to Solution Exchange for WES-Net at se-wes@solutionexchange-un.net.in or the Decentralization Community at se-decn@solutionexchange-un.net.in with the subject heading “Re: [se-decn][se-wes] Query: Improving water and sanitation governance by PRIs, from SEUF, Kerala (Experiences).Additional Response.”

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The national conclave on food held on March 15, 2019 at New Delhi saw experts urge policy changes to promote sustainable food production especially organic farming as well as regulations to reduce misuse of antibiotics and pesticides. The discussions organised by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a New Delhi-based research and advocacy non-profit underlined the need to regulate bad food and bring in a policy-level change in terms of advertisements on junk foods.

In her opening remarks, Sunita Narain, director general of the CSE stressed that “food is linked to nutrition, nature and livelihoods. We need strong regulations which can stop the ingress of chemicals, pesticides and antibiotics into our food and protect us against ‘bad foods’ high in fat, sugar or salt.”

The experts stressed the linkages between the way food is produced and promoted in the country and the growing burden of diseases. “The draft pesticides management bill, 2017 was of critical importance for the health of people since India’s agriculture is largely dependent on chemicals including pesticides whose overuse and misuse has had a huge impact on the health of humans, animals and the environment,” says Chandra Bhushan, deputy director general of the CSE.

Stong pesticide bill needed

Pesticides have contributed significantly to the current economic, ecological and existential crisis in agriculture. The panel of experts deliberated on the need to have a strong pesticide management bill and phase out class I pesticides that are extremely hazardous and toxic. “In India, the central agency responsible for registering pesticides continues to do so without setting the maximum residue limit, the legal limit of pesticide residues in food based on good agricultural practices,” says Sonam Taneja, programme manager, food safety and toxins, CSE.

The draft pesticides management bill, 2017 is weak and needs to be overhauled to deal with the key regulatory gaps and enforcement issues. Stressing that a strong bill would ensure effective pesticide management across registration, sale and use, Ajai Vir Jakhar, chairman, Bharat Krishak Samaj says, “Large pesticide companies (brand owners and marketing agents) generally outsource production to smaller manufacturers. But they can’t be prosecuted because the present law stipulates prosecution of the manufacturer and not brand owners”.

“Agriculture, including agricultural education and research, protection against pests and prevention of plant diseases is a state subject and the power to legislate on regulation should be with the state,” says Balwinder Singh Sidhu, commissioner (agriculture) of Punjab. States should be allowed the sale of only those pesticides that are required for the existing crop mix as per label claim and have been recommended by the state agricultural university after testing for its efficacy in the given environment.  

Farmers continue to commit suicide in large numbers using misbranded (substandard, spurious, expired) pesticides. Avanthi Karunarathne of the Centre for Pesticide Suicide Prevention, University of Edinburgh, based on the experience of the ban of class I pesticides in Sri Lanka, says, “India must immediately phase out class I pesticides which are extremely hazardous”.

The focus should be on minimising pesticide use in view of public health and attaining sustainability, not productivity. Pesticides must be sold under the prescription of a professional expert and the concept of plant health doctors should be introduced. “The ministry of health and family welfare should have the legislative powers to regulate the use of pesticides. At present, the regulation of pesticides is being done by the ministry of agriculture and farmers welfare which has the mandate of increasing productivity. There is a clear conflict of interest as the promoter cannot be the regulator,” says Taneja.   

Need for regulations on antibiotics

Experts also deliberated on antibiotic misuse and antimicrobial resistance in food sources and the need to put a complete stop to the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animals. The use of antibiotics in the poultry and dairy industry is a major reason for human diseases and environmental damage.

“In recent years, people in Kerala, who were once responding to antibiotics, are not doing so any more. This issue is not limited to Kerala but is a global phenomenon. When we tested some food products for trans-fat, especially in packaged food, the levels did not match with the label on the packet. Also, the trans-fat levels in Vanaspati or cooking oil was above five percent—way more than Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) standards,” says Rajeev Sadanandan, additional chief secretary, department of health and family welfare, Kerala, who is spearheading the efforts to contain antimicrobial resistance in the state. Kerala’s antimicrobial resistance strategic action plan could be a model for other states in the country.

Regulating bad foods

Globally, there has been a rise in consumption of animal-source food, calorific sweetness, ready-to-eat food but a decrease in the consumption of vegetables, pulses and fruits. In India, food produced intensively through chemical-based agriculture combined with ‘bad food’ i.e. ultra-processed foods high in fats, sugar or salt is being marketed rampantly.

There are issues with labelling and claims of bad foods, their advertisements in broadcasting and new-age digital media, as well as their availability in schools. The draft regulations put out by the FSSAI on labelling and availability in schools are yet to be notified. The marketing tactics of the food industry need to be regulated by putting in place a comprehensive framework.

The recent news on the forced eviction of more than 1,000,000 tribal and other forest-dwelling households from 16 states by a Supreme Court order has again brought the long-debated issue of the role of the state and the community in forest governance to the forefront. The order comes in response to a case filed by wildlife groups questioning the validity of the Forest Rights Act (FRA).

The issue first emerged with the colonial takeover of India’s forests when abundant forest wealth was diverted to meet the economic needs of the colonial rulers. Although procedures for the settlement of rights existed under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, these were hardly followed. The forest dwellers continued to be marginalised, even after independence. The symbiotic relationship between forests and forest-dwelling communities was first recognised in the National Forest Policy, 1988, which led to the Joint Forest Management Programme that recognised the importance of involving local communities in the protection, regeneration and development of forests. However, all these measures proved to be incomplete or even misdirected.

The paper Forest governance: From co-option and conflict to multilayered governance? in the Economic and Political Weekly talks about the current challenges and issues regarding understanding forest governance in India and traces its evolution from colonial times to the Forest Rights Act (FRA) of 2006.

Forest governance presents many challenges

Although governance basically includes questions such as “who decides and who implements, through what process,” its application in the context of forests presents a number of challenges.

This is because forests generate multiple benefits that cannot be maximised at the same time. Forests not only produce timber, bamboo, fodder, wild honey and other such products, but they also regulate the hydrological cycle, provide habitat for wildlife and sequester carbon dioxide (CO2). Maximising one of the benefits can reduce some other goods and services provided by forests. For example, maximising timber production can lead to the reduction of green cover and flora and fauna of the region, while managing forests for wildlife conservation means timber harvesting has to be curtailed drastically. Therefore finding a straightforward solution is difficult.

Forests benefit a range of stakeholders. While bamboo, fodder, honey etc may benefit local villagers or logging contractors, hydrological regulation helps downstream water users. On the other hand, climate change mitigation due to CO2 sequestration benefits the entire world.

The distribution of forest benefits is shaped socially. For example, timber harvesting may help local communities, logging contractors, or the state, depending on how rights are allocated. Social norms determine whether wildlife is seen as local benefit or a global benefit. Thus, decisions about which benefit to maximise depend on who stands to gain from them.

Forests stand the threat of being exploited by outsiders. Local communities too can modify the forest and thereby affect regional or global stakeholders. Just as forest lands vary in benefits they provide, non-forest lands also provide benefits and vary in their environmental impacts, making it very difficult to separate forest and non-forest areas.

The forest conservation rules too have to be decided meticulously considering various factors like how should forests be managed, for which/whose benefit and how should the boundary between forest and non-forest be defined and regulated.

Forest governance thus raises crucial questions like “Who should decide on these dilemmas and through what process? And who should manage the forests on a day-today basis and within what limits?”

Local communities have for long been ignored in forest governance

The important role of forest dwellers in forest governance has been ignored for a long time. For example, during the colonial times, the state had a stake in revenue generation and once the forest was demarcated, the decisions were undertaken by the forest department in each province.

This continued till a long time following independence and even after the Chipko movement, the focus remained limited to restricting timber oriented forestry and conservation, without paying attention to local needs or granting them a stake in managing forests. Focus on wildlife conservation and creation of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks also led to sidelining of local communities and their rights.

Even the joint forest management (JFM) programme that recognised the important role of local communities in managing the forests did not help and forest officials continued to control the whole process and there was no separation of operational and regulatory roles.

How is the FRA different?

The FRA, triggered originally by protests over the eviction of historically settled adivasis from forests, is the first comprehensive legislative response in independent India to forest governance. The FRA recognises the forest dwellers’ rights to live and cultivate. It states that all non-timber forest produce belongs to forest dwellers. It supports the forest dwellers’ rights to manage their forests and only imposes a broad requirement of sustainable use on them. Protected areas too are a part of this process.

The FRA also deals with the question of when the management of a forested area should be shifted from meeting local livelihood needs to conserving biodiversity in the national interest. It lays down a process for identifying Critical Wildlife Habitats and also for finding out if specific conservation needs require shifting out of the forest dwellers. The FRA also supports forest dwellers in the conversion of their forests to non-forestry activities under the FCA, a concept which was upheld by the Supreme Court in the Niyamgiri case.

However, resistance from existing bureaucratic structures and a lack of clarity on its implementation have led to the undermining of its key provisions. Questions continue to be raised on certain gaps and weaknesses in the FRA. For example, while the procedures for recording individual cultivation or settlement rights are fairly clear, the institutional structure for a post-CFR landscape is not spelt out in the FRA. The FRA also does not explain how the voices of the regional and global stakeholders in wildlife, climate, or hydrological regulation will be heard.

What can be the way out

The paper argues that it is time the idea of multilayered forest governance is accepted where the day-to-day operations, regulation, and policymaking need to be separated and carried out at different levels by different actors/organisations. Local communities need to have a better say in all decisions and processes related to forest governance and can be in the best position to make operational decisions about their forests.

At the same time, credible and impartial processes need to be put in place beyond the local level to operationalise the concepts of sustainable use and conservation. The process of defining sustainable use and conservation should also involve non-foresters or local communities, and be consultative, transparent, context-specific, and learning-oriented rather than penalty-oriented.

Separation of roles is also required in areas such as funding where foresters in the central ministry have been formulating funding programmes through state forest departments or forester– controlled district-level Forest Development Agencies. The newly formulated Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) decision-making bodies now need to be decentralised and include non-foresters in the decision making processes.

The process of dialogue between all the players involved in forest governance needs to start urgently, before it is too late, warns the paper.

A copy of the paper can be downloaded from below:

Koley Kisku, a primary school student at Ranipur village at Rampurhat block in Birbhum district of West Bengal suffers from a thyroid gland related ailment that has partially affected his ability to speak. His school mates say that the 11-year-old could speak normally till a few years ago but he began to lose his voice. Nowadays, he sits quietly in a corner, unable to mingle with other kids. 

Koley is not alone in this predicament. Around 86 pupils who study at Ranipur Lalbazar Primary School that offers education from pre-primary to class IV often miss classes due to various illnesses like diarrhoea. Dirty water from a village pond which is used to cook the mid-day meal for them is found to be the primary cause for this. 

Dirty pond water as the culprit

The school headmaster concedes that the water is not cleaned or purified of germs before it is used for cooking. “Our staff member walks about one kilometre every day to bring water from the pond to cook the meal. Students contract ailments by consuming mid-day meals. We have informed the administration and education department several times but nothing has been done about the situation. We have to depend on the pond as the water level here has gone down due to overconsumption by stone quarries and crushers functional in the area,” says Sk Jinnar Ali, the school headmaster. Moreover, the school lacks separate toilet facilities for girls and boys. 

Ali says that even the students of an Anganwadi of a nearby Kastogora village are being served mid-day meal made from the same contaminated water.  

Locals complain that the water level has receded up to 180 ft and the situation worsens during summers. “The water level has been receding drastically and sometimes it is not possible to get water even at a depth of 200 ft. The stone quarries have been taking away most of the water. We often get dirty water to drink. The situation turns pathetic during summers when we have to travel a distance of 10 kilometres on a bicycle carrying plastic jars to bring water. We often face the danger of being bitten by venomous snakes or being harassed by men,” says Reba Mudi adding that the underground water level also remains low during the rest of the months of the year.

Farming suffers due to shortage of water

The shortage of water has brought farming to a virtual halt in Ranipur forcing men to migrate to Kolkata or other states of the country to earn their livelihood.

Sixty-year-old farmer Sudhir Mudi says that he has been doing odd jobs due to the water crisis. “It doesn’t make sense to think of farming when people are not getting water for drinking. Women have to walk or cycle to far-flung areas to collect water and often indulge in verbal clashes with people of other localities who do not allow us to take the water as they also face the same crisis. The stone quarries and crushers have ruined us but the administration has remained mute spectators. Most of the farmers have already migrated in search of livelihood but a few still remain due to old age.” 

But this situation is not restricted to Ranipur. Several villages in Birbhum district of West Bengal are facing severe water crisis with each passing year thanks to the stone quarries and crushers that have proliferated in the area destroying the ecology of the district and turning several waterbodies dry. 

How mining ruined a district

The history of mining in Birbhum goes back to over 150 years when it was first started at Nalhati by the descendants of Maharaja Nandakumar who was a diwan during the colonial era and was the first victim of hanging after being accused of forgery in 1775. 

The mining spread to other areas of Birbhum in the later years but was largely disorganised and private players were involved. In the late 1960s, the state government decided to offer employment to tribals and began to lease mines exclusively to them. There was a severe movement against the stone quarries and crushing units destroying the environment between 2003-09.

As a result, the government intervened and mining was stopped briefly in 2010. A tripartite agreement was also signed between the quarries and crusher owners but it lasted for only a few days and soon the illegal activities began and people began to face similar atrocities. Indiscriminate mining has severely affected the water quality in the area. 

Now, the situation has reached a saturation point where people in some villages do not take daily bath and instead save the water for livestock. Khepa Baski who lives in Bortolla village turns emotional every time he sees the dry canal near his house which is now being used as a playground by children or as grazing ground for livestock. “The canal used to overflow with water till a few years ago but the shortage of water at the Massanjore dam in Jharkhand has strictly limited the release of water. The canal has ankle deep water in the monsoon while the rest of the year, it remains dry. It is hard to believe now that it was once a lively canal.”

Another villager Dara Singh Tudu says he skips bath often for a week to arrange water for livestock. “We can live without bathing but the livestock needs water to drink. Villagers, including women, defecate outside due to the water crisis,” he says.  

“Once a quarry or a crusher starts on a spot, it doesn’t take long for the surrounding land to get destroyed by the stone and stone dust. The water level starts depleting and the dust settles everywhere. Most of the people have been compelled to sell their houses at throwaway prices after they found it difficult to consume the water laced with dust and got affected with diseases,” says Anil Saha (32) who runs a hotel close to a quarry at Nirisa village in Rampurhat block of the district. “There are some villages in Birbhum where water is supplied through water tanks as the underground water is not available,” he says. 

Illegal stone quarries make lives hell

Kunal deb, secretary of Uthnau, a non-governmental organisation, which has been working for nearly two decades to mobilise the Santhal community against stone quarries and crushers claims that the water level has been receding at an alarming rate in Birbhum district. “We have done a study on the water level in the district and found that it has been decreasing by 15 ft on an average in a decade due to the massive exploitation done by quarries and stone crushing units. The situation might take a turn for the worse if things are not checked as already several pockets are reeling under water shortage.”

He says that over 180 illegal stone quarries and 2000 stone crushers are operational in Mohammedbazar, Rampurhat I, Nalhati I and II and Murari blocks that have forced silent displacement of villagers in 142 villages because of excessive pollution, health ailments and the shortage of water. 

Uthnau and its activists continued their protest against degradation of environment even after signing the agreement and the stone crushers had to reduce their operational time from 24 hours to 12 hours and also raised their voice against the shoddy implementation of environmental rules. 

On August 31, 2016, the district magistrate of Birbhum passed an order for closure of mines running without environmental clearances. “The NGT also took up the matter in 2016 and issued a show cause notice to 213 mines asking why they should not be penalised for causing environmental degradation. The notices were thereafter served to the respective mines by the district police. The matter was then taken up for hearing in NGT,” says Santanu Chakraborty, a lawyer at NGT. 

Deb, however, claims that the stone quarries are still operational and the orders have been clearly violated. He says that around 15000 acres of agricultural land vested to landless tribals have been illegally distributed among quarry owners. “The owners bypassed the laws of the land being used only by adivasis by letting their employees or acquaintances buy the land and then give them a consent letter to use their land for consideration.”

When contacted, the incumbent district magistrate, however, claims that the mining has been stopped post the order though she concedes that legal stone crushers are still operational. “The mining has already been barred and the crushing units have been told to operate with strict guidelines. We are also creating freshwater bodies in several areas to mitigate the water crisis. We are also in the process to lay pipes in those villages where groundwater resources have depleted and water would be supplied through Mayurakshi River including the school in Ranipur village where mid-day meal is being cooked with contaminated water,” says Moumita Godara Basu, the district magistrate of Birbhum.